Contents
Grammar Guide - version 1.11 for Windows.

©  S.J.Sutton, Lingua Systems, 1996

This Grammar Guide is FREEWARE. You can copy and redistribute this file without restriction or fee. Copyright of the contents remains with the author.

This Grammar Guide was produced by Lingua Systems elt software.

Contents

Index

Adjectives	Adverbs
AmE & BrE	Comparisons
Conditionals	Determiners
Inversions	Miscellaneous
Negatives	Nouns
Passive Voice	Prepositions
Questions	Reported Speech
Sentences	Verbs
Using the Grammar Guide


Adjective Index
998 - Adjective Index

To read about adjectives, see:

Adjectives

Adjective Order

Adjective Position #1

Adjective Position #2

Nouns as Adjectives

Participles as Adjectives


Adjective Order
003 - Adjective Order

order; usage

1) When we use more than one adjective in a phrase, they usually follow this order:

	age	colour	origin	material	purpose
a	new	red	Swiss	plastic	army	knife

We can have other types of adjectives which we put before the age. These are general adjectives about the size, the shape and our opinion of the noun. Often we can change the order of these adjectives but we usually put the most important first. Here we are concerned with taste:

	opinion	size
a	tasty	big	sandwich

But if we think the most important thing about the sandwich is its size, we can say:

	size	opinion
a	big	tasty	sandwich

2) When you write, it is best not to use too many adjectives. Certainly, never more than two or, at most, three in a phrase:

the sharp, Swiss army knife

a big, thick sandwich

See also:

Adjective Index


Adjectives
001 - Adjectives

Adjectives are words we use to describe a noun. They usually come before it:

a big, red, boring book

The noun in this phrase is book and the adjectives tell us what size it is (big), what colour it is (red) and what we think of it (boring).

Adjectives never change their form; they are always the same:

the ugly woman and the ugly man

the ugly football team and the ugly goalkeeper

the ugly dog and the ugly scenery

See also:

Adjective Index


Adjective Position #1
002 - Adjective Position #1

attributive position; subject complements; object complements; complex pronouns

1) When we put adjectives with nouns, they usually come before the noun:

{adjective(s)} + {noun}

a dirty, old man

some large blue whales

2) When the adjective is a subject complement, we put it after the verb:

{verb} + {adjective(s)}

The Atlantic Ocean is big.

The man seemed old, infirm and drunk.

3) When the adjective is an object complement, we put it after the noun phrase:

{noun phrase} + {adjective(s)}

They called him fat.

I painted the old car yellow and purple.

4) When we use compound pronouns ending with -body, -one, -thing and -where, the adjective follows:

{compound pronoun} + {adjective(s)}

Give me something cool and strong to drink.

Anybody brave can do it.

See also:

Adjective Index


Adjective Position #2
006 - Adjective Position #2

attributive & predicative; attributive only; predicative only

1) Some adjectives can only come before a noun. These are called attributive adjectives:

{attributive adjective} + {noun}

Other adjectives can only come after a verb. These are called predicative adjectives:

{verb} + {predicative adjective}

For example, alone is a predicative adjective; it can only follow:

I feel alone.

He is an alone man.

In the second example, we can use instead an attributive adjective and say:

He is a lonely man.

2) When we use a noun as an adjective, it is usually attributive only:

{noun as attributive adjective} + {noun}

a table leg

football hooligans

Common attributive-only adjectives include:

attributive only	predicative
elder	older
live	alive
sheer	-
mere	-
sure	-
plain	-

Notes

a) live is attributive only when it means not dead; it can be predicative when it has other meanings.

b) Intensifying adjectives such as sheer and sure are usually attributive only.

3) Common predicative-only adjectives include:

attributive	predicative only
floating	afloat
frightened	afraid
-	alight
similar	alike
live - living	alive
lonely	alone
sleeping	asleep
-	awake
-	lit
elder - older	older
-	present

Notes

a) Many words in this list begin with a-

b) present is attributive only when it means in this or that place

See also:

Adjective Index


Adjectives as Nouns; Nouns as Adjectives
004 - Adjectives as Nouns; Nouns as Adjectives

adjectives; nouns

1) We can use an adjective as a noun by using this pattern:

{the} + {adjective}

We use this to talk about a group of people:

The rich get richer while the poor get poorer.

We can also use it to talk about an abstract idea:

the new, the old, the infinite

2) We can also put two nouns together. When we do this, the first noun acts like an adjective and gives us more information about the second noun:

 [determiner] + {noun} + {noun}

computer programs

some record players

See also:

Adjective Index


Participles as Adjectives
005 - Participles as Adjectives

We can often make an adjective from a verb. We do this by using the -ing and -ed participles:

verb	-ed participle	-ing participle
interest	interested	interesting

We use the -ed participle as a subject adjective; it describes how the subject of a sentence feels:

She was interested in the programme.

The disappointed candidate felt cheated by the result.

We use the -ing participle as an object adjective; it describes the object of the sentence:

The programme was interesting (for her).

The candidate objected to the disappointing result.

See also:

Adjective Index


Adverb Index
995 - Adverb Index

To read about adverbs, see:

Adverbs

Adverb Groups

Adverbs of Time

Adverbs of Place

Adverbial Clauses

Adverbs of Degree

Adverbs of Manner

Adverbs of Frequency

Adverb Order


Adverb Order
028 - Adverb Order

If we have more than one adverb in an adverb phrase, we generally use this order:

	manner	place	time
you must go	quickly	into the kitchen	after lunch
See also:

Adverb Index


Adverbial Clauses
029 - Adverbial Clauses

conjunctions; adverbial clause; present participle; perfect

1) We can join two clauses using a simple conjunction:

She heard the door open while she was watching television.

2) The second clause can be turned into an adverbial clause by using the present participle:

She heard the door open while watching television.

3) We can use the present participle by itself to show something happening simultaneously or just previously to the main event:

Watching tv, she heard the door open.

Laughing, I walked out.

Standing up, he introduced himself.

4) Using perfect forms makes the construction more formal:

Standing up, he introduced himself.

Having stood up, he introduced himself.

Perfect forms can also replace clauses of reason:

Not knowing, can't say.

Drunk, we got lost.

But these are more written than spoken.

See also:

Adverb Index


Adverb Groups
022 - Adverb Groups

manner; degree; frequency; time; place; intensifying

1) Adverbs of manner tell us how something happens:

They fought bitterly.

We sang happily.

2) Adverbs of degree tell us how much something happens, i.e. to what extent. They usually go with other adjectives, adverbs and verbs:

She is totally insane.

I am completely bewildered.

3) Adverbs of frequency tell us how often something happens:

He never phones.

They often argue.

4) Adverbs of time tell us when things happen:

He has just arrived.

They came recently.

5) Adverbs of place tell us where things happen:

He came here.

I went there last June.

6) Intensifying adverbs make things stronger or weaker

I am really tired.

She plays the violin very well.

See also:

Adverb Index


Adverbs of Degree
023 - Adverbs of Degree

We use adverbs of degree to tell us how much something happened:

Is there enough wine?

She can hardly sing.

We usually put them before the adjective or adverb they describe:

too high

extremely quickly

Many of these adverbs end in -ly.

See also:

Adverb Index


Adverbs of Frequency
024 - Adverbs of Frequency

We use adverbs of degree to tell us how often something happened.

I rarely eat meat.

I often go to the cinema.

We usually put them before the main verb:

She seldom speaks.

They occasionally go out.

Many of these adverbs do not have any special form. A typical list from always to never:

always

often

frequently

usually

normally

sometimes

occasionally

seldom

rarely

never

See also:

Adverb Index


Adverbs of Manner
025 - Adverbs of Manner

We use adverbs of manner to tell us how something happened. They describe the way or style of doing something:

You can dance well.

She sang that song badly.

We usually put them at the end of the sentence, though sometimes they come before the main verb:

That book was written badly.

That book was badly written.

Many of these adverbs end in -ly:

awkwardly, badly, coldly, desperately...

Common irregular adverbs of manner include:

high, late, near, well

See also:

Adverb Index


Adverbs of Place
026 - Adverbs of Place

We use adverbs of place to tell us where something happened.

I saw him at the cinema.

They met me here yesterday.

We usually put them at the end of the sentence. place comes before time in the end position:

We left there at midnight.

Do you come here often?

 Sometimes we can put them at the beginning of the sentence for emphasis:

In the middle of the road there was a dead cat.

Many of these adverbs do not have any special form and they are often phrases of prepositions and place.

See also:

Adverb Index


Adverbs of Time
027 - Adverbs of Time

We use adverbs of time to tell us when something happened.

I saw him last Sunday.

They met me here yesterday.

We usually put them at the end of the sentence:

I'll telephone on Thursday.

We met one year ago today.

Sometimes we can put them at the beginning for emphasis:

Next week is my birthday.

Many of these adverbs do not have any special form. They are often preposition phrases.

See also:

Adverb Index


Adverbs
021 - Adverbs

We use adverbs to give us more information about an adjective, a verb or the sentence as a whole:

The only red bike.

She swam beautifully.

Unfortunately it is raining so I cannot visit the zoo.

However, we also use adverbs in many other ways; many people see adverbs as the group of words in English which do not fit into any other category (such as noun, verb, etc.).

We can use adverbs to give more information about how, how often, when or where something happened:

He wrote crookedly in the diary.

I regularly go to the gym.

I've been ill lately.

Go away!

Adverbs can also make the description stronger or weaker:

She is totally insane.

I hardly knew him.

Many, but not all, adverbs end in -ly; we make adverbs from adjectives by adding -ly to the end:

He is a bad driver; he drove badly.

It is a clear day; she can see clearly.

See also:

Adverb Index


American & British English Index
994 - American & British English Index

To read about American & British English, see:

American & British English

AmE & BrE Grammar #1

AmE & BrE Grammar #2

AmE & BrE Vocabulary


AmE & BrE Grammar #1
042 - AmE & BrE Grammar #1

present perfect & past simple; have & have got; irregular verbs.

1) BrE sometimes uses the present perfect while AmE use the past simple:

BrE:	Have you eaten all those biscuits?
AmE:	Did you eat all those cookies?
BrE:	Have you ever seen the film, Casablanca?
AmE:	Did you ever see the movie, Casablanca?

2) BrE uses have got while AmE tends to use have:

BrE:	Have you got new training shoes?
AmE:	Do you have new sneakers?
BrE:	I've got some wellington boots you can borrow.
AmE:	I have some rubbers you can borrow.
BrE:	I haven't got time for a holiday this year.
AmE:	I don't have time for a vacation this year.

3) There are some differences in irregular verbs between AmE and BrE. Two major differences are:

BrE:	dive - dived - dived	She dived into the pool.
AmE:	dive - dove - dived	She dove into the pool.
BrE:	get - got - got	The baby has got a lot bigger.
AmE:	get - got -gotten	The baby has gotten a lot bigger.
See also:

American & British English Index

AmE & BrE Grammar #2


AmE & BrE Grammar #2
043 - AmE & BrE Grammar #2

prepositions; shall; question tags; collective nouns; informal adverbs; double imperatives.

1) BrE uses from...to/till/until while AmE uses from...through:

BrE:	The optician is open from eight till four.
AmE:	The optometrist is open from eight through four.

There are also a number of other differences in BrE and AmE prepositions, e.g. different to/than, at/on the weekend, ten past/after midnight.

2) BrE can use shall for offers and suggestions while AmE uses should:

BrE:	Shall I call a taxi?
AmE:	Should I call cab?

3) BrE uses a lot of question tags. AmE does not; instead it uses words like right and ok:

BrE:	I'll park on the verge, shall I?
AmE:	I'll park on the shoulder, right?

4) BrE can use a singular or plural verb for collective nouns while AmE uses only a singular verb:

BrE:	The team are playing badly.
AmE:	The team is playing badly.

5) In informal speech, AmE sometimes use adverbs without the -ly ending:

BrE:	Autumn was really cold this year.
AmE:	Fall was real cold this year.

6) With double imperatives beginning with go, AmE sometimes drops the joining and:

BrE:	Go and open the door.
AmE:	Go open the door.
See also:

American & British English Index


AmE & BrE Vocabulary
044 - AmE & BrE Vocabulary

miscellaneous words; road & traffic; clothes & accessories.

1) Miscellaneous words:

AmE	BrE	BrE	AmE
alumnus	graduate	anywhere	anyplace
anyplace	anywhere	autumn	fall
apartment	flat	barrister, solicitor	attorney
attorney	barrister, solicitor	biscuit	cookie
baby-carriage	pram	caretaker	janitor
bar	pub	chemist's	drug store
billboard	hoarding	condom	rubber
broiler	grill	cooker	stove
call-collect	reverse charge	cot	crib
can	tin	cotton	thread
candy	sweets	crisps	potato chips
checkers	draughts	cupboard	closet
closet	cupboard	draughts	checkers
cookie	biscuit	drawing pin	thumbtack
corn	maize	dummy (for a baby)	pacifier
crib	cot	estate agent	realtor
dish-towel	tea-towel	external tap	spigot
drug store	chemist's	flat	apartment
elevator	lift	graduate	alumnus
eraser	rubber	grill	broiler
faculty	staff (university)	ground floor	first floor
fall	autumn	hoarding	billboard
faucet	tap	holiday	vacation
first floor	ground floor	jug	pitcher
flashlight	torch	lift	elevator
garbage	rubbish	maize	corn
hobo	tramp	maths	math
janitor	caretaker	nowhere	noplace
kerosene	paraffin	nursing home	private hospital
liquor store	off-licence	oculist, optician	optometrist
mail	post	off-licence	liquor store
math	maths	paraffin	kerosene
mean	vicious	post	mail
noplace	nowhere	pram	baby-carriage
optometrist	oculist, optician	pub	bar
pacifier	dummy (for a baby)	push-chair	stroller
pitcher	jug	railway	railroad
potato chips	crisps	reel	spool
private hospital	nursing home	reverse charge	call-collect
railroad	railway	rubber	eraser
realtor	estate agent	rubbish	garbage
rest room	toilet	rubbish	trash
rubber	condom	school, college, university	school
rubbers	wellington boots	shop	store
school	school, college, university	somewhere	someplace
someplace	somewhere	staff (university)	faculty
spigot	external tap	sweets	candy
spool	reel	tap	faucet
store	shop	tea-towel	dish-towel
stove	cooker	tin	can
stroller	push-chair	toilet	rest room
subway	underground	torch	flashlight
thread	cotton	tramp	hobo
thumbtack	drawing pin	underground	subway
trash	rubbish	vicious	mean
vacation	holiday	wellington boots	rubbers

Note

In BrE fag is an informal word for cigarette. In AmE fag is an offensive term for a homosexual.

2) Words for road & traffic

AmE	BrE	BrE	AmE
automobile	car	bonnet	hood
cab	taxi	boot (of a car)	trunk
detour	diversion	bumper, mudguard	fender
divided highway	dual carriageway	car	automobile
expressway	motorway	caravan	trailer
fender	bumper, mudguard	crash	wreck
flat	puncture, flat tyre	crossroads	intersection
freeway	motorway	diversion	detour
gas	petrol	dual carriageway	divided highway
gear-shift	gear-stick, gear-lever	engine	motor
highway	main road	gear-stick, gear-lever	gear-shift
hood	bonnet	main road	highway
intersection	crossroads	motorway	expressway
motor	engine	motorway	freeway
muffler	silencer	pavement	sidewalk
oil pan	sump	petrol	gas
patrolman	policeman	policeman	patrolman
pavement	road surface	puncture, flat tyre	flat
sedan	saloon car	road surface	pavement
shoulder	verge	roundabout	traffic circle
sidewalk	pavement	saloon car	sedan
traffic circle	roundabout	silencer	muffler
trailer	caravan	sump	oil pan
truck	van, lorry	taxi	cab
trunk	boot (of a car)	toll motorway	turnpike
turnpike	toll motorway	van, lorry	truck
windshield	windscreen	verge	shoulder
wreck	crash	windscreen	windshield

3) Words for clothes & accessories

AmE	BrE	BrE	AmE
billfold	wallet	braces	suspenders
coin-purse	purse	handbag	pocketbook, purse
cuffs	turn-ups (on trousers)	nappy	diaper
diaper	nappy	purse	coin-purse
pants	trousers	tights	panty-hose
panty-hose	tights	training shoes	sneakers
pocketbook, purse	handbag	trousers	pants
shorts	underpants	turn-ups (on trousers)	cuffs
sneakers	training shoes	underpants	shorts
suspenders	braces	vest	undershirt
undershirt	vest	waistcoat	vest
vest	waistcoat	wallet	billfold
zipper	zip	zip	zipper
See also:

American & British English Index


American & British English
041 - American & British English

American English (AmE) and British English (BrE) are almost the same. The biggest difference between the two is with pronunciation.

There are, however, a few differences in spelling, vocabulary and grammar.

In general, there are very few problems or misunderstandings when AmE speakers and BrE speakers talk together.

See also:

American & British English Index


Comparison Index
997 - Comparison Index

To read about comparison, see:

Comparison

Comparison Phrases

Comparative & Superlative #1

Comparative & Superlative #2

Comparative & Superlative #3


Comparatives & Superlatives #1
053 - Comparatives & Superlatives #1

comparative & superlative; two items; more than two; form

1) When we want to compare two nouns or two verbs, we use the comparative and superlative forms of their adjectives or adverbs. These follow the same usage as the adjectives and adverbs they replace.

2) To compare two items, we use the comparative:

I am big, he is bigger.

She works carefully, he works more carefully.

We often use this form in this pattern:

{comparative} + {than}

He is taller than me.

We are more efficient than you.

3) To compare more than two items, we use the superlative:

Jupiter is the biggest planet in the solar system.

In the company, Sandra works the most carefully.

4) Small words add -er and -est to make the comparative and superlative. Large words use the and more and most:

	comparative	superlative
small	smaller	the smallest
extensive	more extensive	the most extensive
See also:

Comparison Index

Comparatives & Superlatives #2


Comparatives & Superlatives #2
054 - Comparatives & Superlatives #2

incomplete comparison; present perfect.

1) If the context is clear, we do not need to use a complete comparison. We can say:

This book is less interesting.

They dance less enthusiastically.

The rest of the sentence is implied:

This book is more difficult (than that book).

2) We often use the superlative with the present perfect:

{superlative} ... {present {ever} perfect}

It was the most boring film I have ever seen.

That was the most disgusting meal I have ever had to eat.

See also:

Comparison Index

Comparatives & Superlatives #3


Comparatives & Superlatives #3
055 - Comparatives & Superlatives #3

irregular forms; notes.

1) Some words make their comparative and superlative in an irregular way:

adjective/adverb	comparative	superlative
good/well	better	the best
bad/badly	worse	the worst
far	farther	the farthest
far	further	the furthest
many/much/a lot of	more	the most
a little	less	the least
old	older	the oldest
old	elder	the eldest

2) Notes

2a) We use old - older - the oldest when we talk about objects or people and we use old - elder - eldest for family relationships

2b) Some words can take both forms:

friendly - friendlier - the friendliest

friendly - more friendly - the most friendly

Other examples include: clever, common, dirty, easy, funny, gentle, happy, noisy, narrow, polite, quiet, shallow, silly, simple and stupid.

See also:

Comparison Index


Comparison
051 - Comparison

introduction; nouns; verbs; phrases

1) When we compare two or more items, we have different ways to do it depending on the items we are comparing. We can change the form of the word or use a phrase.

2) To compare nouns, we can change the adjective describing them by using comparative and superlative adjectives:

Enid is pretty though Aleka is prettier; Aleka is prettier than Enid.

But Olga is the prettiest of them all.

3) To compare verbs, we can change the adverb describing them by using comparative and superlative adverbs:

Olga works carefully though Aleka works more carefully.

But Enid works the most carefully of them all.

4) We can also use different phrases to make comparisons. For example:

He is as tall as me.

He is the tallest man I have ever seen.

He looks as if he is the tallest man in the room.

He is so tall that he has to bend to get through the door.

See also:

Comparison Index


Comparison Phrases
052 - Comparison Phrases

similarity; difference; ability/inability.

1) To show similarity, we can use these phrases:

1a) {as} + {adjective/adverb} + {as}

He is as tall as me.

They work as slowly as I do.

In positive sentences we can use as...as, in negative sentences we use as...as or so...as

They are not so clever as us.

They are not as clever as us.

1b) {the same} + [noun phrase] + {as}

This colour is the same as that colour.

This is the same colour as that.

1c) We use the following expressions when we are explaining something we have seen or noticed:

{subject} + {verb} + {as} + {if/though} ...

I am very tired. I feel as if I haven't slept for a week.

The weather is cold. It looks as though it is going to snow.

like means the same but it is very informal:

Their clothes were ripped. They looked like they had been in a fight.

1d) When two people or objects are similar, we can use like or as:

He looks like you.

No one drives as the Italians do.

2) To show difference, we can use this phrase:

{different} + {from}

They are different from us.

3) To show ability or inability, we can use these phrases:

3a) {such} + {noun phrase} + {that}

He is such a good player that he will play for the national team.

It was such bad weather that they cancelled the excursion.

3b) {so} + {adjective} + {a/an} + {non-countable noun phrase} + {that}

He is so good a player that he will play for the national team.

They are so bad a team that they will all be sacked.

3c) {so} + {adjective} + {that}

He is so good that he will play for the national team.

The weather was so bad that they cancelled the excursion.

3d) {too} + {adjective} + {to} + {infinitive}

This is too good to be true!

He is too small to be a policeman.

We are too old to fight.

3e) {too} + {adjective} + {for} + {person} + {to} + {infinitive}

It was too distant for me to see.

He is too good for me.

He is too good for me to beat.

3f) {adjective} + {for} + {person} + {to} + {infinitive}

That was easy for you to say.

It was difficult for me to do.

See also:

Comparison Index


Conditional Index
993 - Conditional Index

To read about conditionals, see:

Conditionals

Conditional 1

Conditional 2

Conditional 1 or 2?

Conditional 3

Miscellaneous Conditionals

Conditional Clauses


Conditional Clauses
077 - Conditional Clauses

In the examples for the conditional, the conditional clauses have been like this:

{subject} + {will/would} + {verb}

However, we can use other modal verbs in place of will and would.

If it rains like this all day, the river will flood.

If it rains like this all day, the river might flood.

If it rains like this all day, the river could flood.

might means will possibly and could means will be able to.

See also:

Conditional Index


Conditional 1
072 - Conditional 1

We use the first conditional to talk about situations in the future which we think they will probably happen or which are perfectly reasonable and likely:

If we leave at 9.00, we will catch the train.

If you stop crying, I will give you a sweet.

To make the first conditional we use two clauses. The if-clause is in the present, the conditional clause uses will and the infinitive:

{if} + {present} | {will} + {infinitive}

There are two clauses: the if-clause can come first or second. When it comes first, we usually put a comma between the two.

If you work hard, you will make lots of money.

You will lose lots of money if you keep gambling.

See also:

Conditional Index

Conditional 1 or Conditional 2?


Conditional 1 or Conditional 2?
074 - Conditional 1 or Conditional 2?

Sometimes it is difficult to know when to use the first conditional and when to use the second conditional. If you want to talk about something which is likely to happen, use Conditional 1; if the idea is unlikely, use Conditional 2. Obviously sometimes we can use either of these types.

If I work too much, I will hurt myself.

If I worked too much, I would hurt myself.

The first example suggests that I think I work too much and I ought to stop; the second example suggests I don't want to work too hard and this is why not.

Using the first or second conditional depends on the point of view of the speaker:

a pessimist says	if I won...
an optimist says	if I win...
a pessimist says	if my house is on fire...
an optimist says	if my house were on fire...

The first conditional uses the present tense and the second conditional uses the past tense, but both of these conditionals can talk about the present or future - the tense does not show time but likelihood.

See also:

Conditional Index

Conditional 1

Conditional 2


Conditional 2
073 - Conditional 2

We use the second conditional to talk about possible but unlikely situations in the future and whether they will happen or not, or imaginary present situations:

If you met the President, what would you say?

If you had a million pounds, what would you do with it?

To make the second conditional we use two clauses. The if-clause is in the past tense, the conditional clause uses will and the infinitive:

{if} + {past} | {would} + {infinitive}

There are two clauses: the if-clause can come first or second. When it comes first, we usually put a comma between the two.

If you wrote a bestseller, you would make lots of money.

You would earn lots of money if you worked harder.

We also use it for giving advice. This is very common:

If I were you, I would...

Note

We use I were instead of I was because we are actually using the subjunctive; many people nowadays, however, say if I was...

See also:

Conditional Index


Conditional 3
075 - Conditional 3

We use the third conditional to talk about situations in the past which cannot be changed; we talk about how the results might be different:

If Baggio had scored, Italy would have won the match.

(But Baggio did not score and Italy lost.)

To make the third conditional we use two clauses. The if-clause is in the past perfect tense and the conditional clause uses would have and the past participle:

{if} + {past perfect} | {would} + {have} + {past participle}

There are two clauses: the if-clause can come first or second. When it comes first, we usually put a comma between the two.

If Blucher had not arrived, Napoleon would have won at Waterloo.

France would have been the most powerful country in Europe if Napoleon had won at Waterloo.

See also:

Conditional Index


Conditionals
071 - Conditionals

A conditional is a kind of sentence which uses a word such as if. It talks about situations which are not real.

There are three main types of conditional sentences:

We use Conditional 1 to talk about probable situations in the future.

We use Conditional 2 to talk about possible but unlikely situations in the future.

We use Conditional 3 to talk about past situations which did not happen.

type	if clause	conditional clause
conditional 1	if we leave now	we will catch the train
conditional 2	if we left now	we would catch the train
conditional 3	if we had left earlier	we would have caught the train
See also:

Conditional Index


Conditionals Miscellaneous
076 - Conditionals Miscellaneous

eternal truths; giving orders; offers, advice; suggestions; improbable future; if + will, would; if alternatives; deleting if; happen to

1) When we talk about eternal truths (situations which are always true) such as scientific facts, we can use this pattern:

{if} + {present tense} | {present tense}

If water reaches 100, it turns into steam.

If you go, I go.

2) When we give orders, we use:

{if} + {present tense} | {imperative}

If the car breaks down, telephone me.

Let me know if you are in trouble.

3) When we offer or give advice we can use:

{if} + {present continuous/present perfect} | {modal}

If the car is acting up, you should telephone me.

You ought to let me know if you are thinking of moving to London.

4) When we give suggestions we can use:

{if} + {modal} | {modal}

If the can't get your perfect job, you should for anything.

5) When we talk about improbable future actions we can use:

{if} + {should} | {modal/imperative}

If the car should break down, telephone me.

You ought to let me know if you should change your mind.

6) When we talk about willingness or wishing, we can use if + will. This is often used to make offers:

{if} + {will/would} | {modal}

If you will come with me, I can show you the way.

If you wouldn't mind, I'd like to talk to you.

In these examples, will has nothing to do with future meaning.

7) We can also make conditionals by using words other than if.

If we had more money, we could buy a new car.

Supposing we had more money, what would you buy?

Take the umbrella in case it rains.

Don't leave unless I tell you to.

supposing	= if
in case	= if by chance
unless	= if ... not

8) We can also leave out if in informal situations:

You make any more trouble (and) I'll call the police!

Should the car break down, call me straight away.

9) We can use happen to to suggest that something happens by chance:

If you happen to see Kevin, tell him to call me.

We can also use it with should when there is even less chance of something happening:

If you should happen to bump into the Prime Minister, tell him to give me a tax rebate.

See also:

Conditional Index


Determiner Index

To read about determiners, see:

Determiners

Articles #1

Articles #2

Articles #3

Articles #4

Demonstrative Adjectives

Possessives


Demonstrative adjectives
096 - Demonstrative adjectives

We use demonstrative adjectives to talk about specific examples of a noun.

When we talk about a singular or non-countable noun, we use this if the noun is close to us (in space or time), or that if the noun is far away (in space or time):

Look at this picture here.

Can you see that mountain?

I'm going on holiday this week.

That was a long time ago.

When we talk about a plural noun, we use these if the noun is close to us (in space or time), or those if the noun is far away (in space or time):

Look at all these pictures here.

Can you see those mountains?

I've been feeling quite ill these days.

I remember all those summer days when I was young.

See also:

Determiner Index


Determiners
091 - Determiners

Determiners are words we put in front of a noun or noun phrase. They tell us about the number of items we are talking about; they often restrict the use of the noun. For example:

determiner	noun	...
	cats	sleep a lot
a	cat	sleeps a lot
the	cat	sleeps a lot
my	cat	sleeps a lot
most	cats	sleep a lot
some	cats	sleep a lot

Determiners usually come before the noun, at the beginning of the noun phrase, and we can generally only use one determiner for a noun phrase.

These are the classes of determiners:

example	see
a - an - the	articles
my - your - his...	possessives
whose - which - what
some - any	some - any
enough	enough
this - that - these - those	demonstrative adjectives
every - each	each - every
much	much
either - neither	either - neither
all - both - half	predeterminers
double - twice - three times...
one-quarter - two-thirds...	fractions
first - second - third...	ordinal numbers
one - two - three...	cardinal numbers
many - more - most	many
few - fewer - fewest	few
little - less - least	little
several

See also:

Determiner Index


Articles
092 - Articles

There are three articles in English:

	the zero article
a/an	the indefinite article
the	the definite article

We use these articles with nouns.

I like drinking water.

I like a cup of tea before bed.

I like the taste of malt whisky.

When we talk about a group of nouns in general, we use the zero article. Here we are talking about all cats:

Cats like sleeping.

When we talk about one example of a group we use the indefinite article. Here we are talking about one cat from many:

There is a cat in the garden.

When we talk about one specific example of the group, we use the definite article. Here we are talking about one special cat:

The cat with the grey and black coat is mine.

Note

The zero article means that we do not use anything; it is useful to help to explain how we use the other articles.

See also:

Determiner Index


Group Articles
093 - Group Articles

zero articles; definite articles; non-countable nouns

1) When we want to talk about all the nouns in a group, we use the zero article (i.e. nothing):

Dogs bark and cats purr.

In this example, we are making a general comment about all cats and all dogs.

2) When we talk about a sub-group of nouns, we use the definite article, the:

The men from Nagasaki chew tobacco.

Compare this with:

Men are often paid more than women for the same job.

We often use the when we have adjectives or other qualifications of the noun which restrict it:

Flowers make a house brighter.

I prefer the red flowers.

I am impressed with the flowers in your garden.

3) We can also use the definite article with a singular noun to mean all nouns:

Bananas have a curious design.

The banana has a curious design.

Both of these mean the same thing.

4) When we use non-countable nouns, we treat them like plural nouns. This is because non-countable nouns have the idea of a large amount:

Water is essential for healthy crops.

The water in this river is very polluted.

5) Sometimes we can choose whether to use an article or not. Both of these are possible:

People in my town always vote Conservative.

The people in my town always vote Conservative.

The article we use here depends on the point of view of the speaker.

See also:

Determiner Index


Single Articles
094 - Single Articles

indefinite articles; definite articles; indefinite to definite; one

1) When we want to talk about a single example of a noun, we can use the definite or indefinite article. When we talk about one noun in general, and it does not matter which one, we use the indefinite article a or an:

Can you lend me a pen please?

I saw an elephant playing in the garden.

In the first example it makes no difference which pen is lent; the speaker does not mind if it is red or blue or old or new, etc. In the second example, the important fact is that there is an elephant in the garden; the speaker is not concerned whether the elephant is old or young, a bull or a cow.

Note

We use a before a consonant sound and an before a vowel sound. Be careful with words like hour which are spelt with a consonant but start with a vowel sound - an hour. Also take care with words like union which are spelt with a vowel but start with a consonant sound - a union.

2) When we talk about a specific example of a group, we use the definite article, the:

Which pen do you want? - I want the red pen, please.

In this example, the speaker does not want any pen, but a special or specific one.

3) When we are speaking, we often introduce a new subject with a... and then, when we talk about it again, we use the...

Elephants are annoying! I saw an elephant climb into my garden this morning and then the elephant ate all my tomatoes.

In this example, the speaker firstly talks about elephants in general (zero article), then about an example of the genre (indefinite article) and finally about the previously mentioned example (definite article). We use the to talk about a noun we already know about. This can be mentioned previously (as above) or be obvious from the context:

You look upset; what's the problem?

4) The meaning of a/an is one. We do not use one unless we want to specify exactly how many we want.

Can you lend me one pound please, I don't need any more.

Did you see two cats in the garden? - No, I only saw one cat.

In general, we do not use one very much and mostly use a or an.

See also:

Determiner Index


Article Usage
095 - Article Usage

prepositions; institutions; indefinite articles; definite articles; zero articles

1) When we use a noun with a preposition, we often do not use an article:

I went to school but left my books at home. Mother was in church and father at sea; Grandfather came to dinner later by train and Grandmother managed to escape from prison to join us.

2) When we talk about school as an institution, we use the zero article. When we talk about it as a building, we use the:

He was taken to court to be tried; in the court he met an old friend.

Nouns in this group include: bed, church, class, college, court, home, hospital, market, prison, school, sea, town, university, work.

3) The indefinite article. We use a or an when we talk about:

jobs	He is an artist and his wife is a plumber.
beliefs	He is a Buddhist and his wife is an atheist.
nationalities	He is an American and she is a Swede.

We never use the indefinite article with non-countable nouns:

I swam in a clean water and ate a pasta.

4) The definite article. We use the when we talk about:

oceans, seas	the Pacific, the Black Sea
inventions	the wheel, the internal combustion engine
titles	the Queen, the President, the chairperson
rivers & canals	the Thames, the Nile, the Suez.
public buildings	the Sheraton, the Red Lion, the Natural History Museum
newspapers	The Independent, The Daily Mirror
superlatives	the best, the worst.
families	the Smiths
countries of union	the United States, the West Indies
mountain chains	the Alps, the Highlands
instruments	the piano, the bagpipes
ships	the Bismarck, the Lusitania

5) The zero article. We use the zero article when we talk about:

years	1961, 1995, 2000
people	Joe, Mrs Smith
seasons & months	Winter, February
festivals	Easter
continents	Africa, Asia, America, Europe
days	Monday, Tuesday
parts of day/night	midnight, midday, noon, night
magazines	Cosmopolitan, Time
countries	America, Britain, Arabia
cities & towns	London, New York, Tokyo, Sydney, Cairo
streets	Acacia Avenue, Pall Mall, Sunset Boulevard
buildings	Buckingham Palace, Number 10
airports	Heathrow, Gatwick
mountains	Everest, K2, Mont Blanc
games	football, tennis, bar billiards

Exceptions include: the Hague; the Matterhorn; the Mall; the White House

See also:

Determiner Index


Possessives

introduction; places; of; apostrophe s; noun & apostrophe; prepositions; preposition or apostrophe?

1) There are several ways to show who owns or possesses something in English.

Erica has a book which he bought. The book belongs to Erica. To show that Erica is the owner, we use an apostrophe s added to the owner and make a noun-phrase:

Erica's book

Because Erica is a feminine name, we can use a feminine pronoun and because Erica's is possessive, we must use the possessive adjective:

her book

We also use possessive adjectives to talk about parts of the body:

your hands, your head

We can also use a possessive pronoun which refers to the whole phrase:

hers

Putting these together, we have:

This book belongs to Erica.

This is Erica's book.

This is her book.

This is hers.

If the noun already ends in s we can add an apostrophe s or just the apostrophe:

This book belongs to James.

This is James's' book.

This is James' book.

It is perhaps neater to add just the apostrophe.

If the noun is plural, we only add an apostrophe, not s as well:

These books belong to these boys.

These are the boys' books.

2) When we talk about places, we often use the possessive:

I went to the butcher's.

I stayed with the Watson's.

Meaning: the butcher's shop, the Wilson's house.

3) With inanimate objects, we normally use of to show possession rather than an apostrophe s:

The side of the car

The car's side.

We also use of when the possessive noun has a describing clause following it:

I saw the man's dog.

I saw the dog of the man in the blue hat.

I saw the man in the blue hat's dog.

We don't use of for time adverbs:

Yesterday's news is today's history.

It was ten minutes' drive.

4) We can make the noun possessive by adding an apostrophe -s:

[determiner] + {possessive} + {noun}

my brother's old records

a dog's life

5) Sometimes we can have very similar noun phrases using a noun or a possessive:

my computer program

my computer's program

In the first example, computer gives us more information about program which is the root of the phrase. The noun phrase is all about my program.

In the second example, program tells us what belongs to computer's. The noun phrase is all about my computer.

6) We can also make possessive noun phrases using prepositions:

[determiner] + {noun phrase} + {preposition} + [determiner] + {noun phrase}

that book about fossil fuel

the names of some cities

7) Sometimes we can have two types of noun phrase which mean the same thing:

the people's decision

the decision of the people

Generally, we use a possessive when the noun is animate, i.e. it is a person or animal, and we use a preposition when the noun is inanimate, i.e. it is a thing. There are a lot of exceptions to this rule, though and many times we can use either pattern.

See also:

Determiner Index


Noun Index
996 - Noun Index

To read about nouns, see:

Nouns

Noun Groups

Common & Proper Nouns

Noun Phrases

Noun Phrase Patterns

Singular & Plural Nouns #1

Singular & Plural Nouns #2

Countable & Non-Countable Nouns

Quantity with Countable & Non-Countable Nouns

Countable & Non-Countable

Pronouns

Personal Pronouns

Reflexive Pronouns

Gender

Gerunds

Adjectives as Nouns

Apposition


Common & Proper Nouns
113 - Common & Proper Nouns

concrete & abstract common nouns; proper nouns

1) When we talk about nouns, we can divide them into two different groups. We use common nouns to talk about objects or concepts:

objects	table, hill, water, atom, elephant
events	lesson, revolution
feelings	fear, hate, love
time	year, minute, millennium
concepts	warfare, brotherhood, causation

Note

We can divide common nouns into two further groups. We talk about concrete nouns when we refer to objects and we talk about abstract nouns when we refer to concepts which are mental rather than physical (i.e. we cannot see, hear, taste, smell or touch them).

2) The second group of nouns are called proper nouns. The big difference between these and common nouns is that proper nouns are spelt with a capital letter. A proper noun is the name of a person, a place or a title:

Queen Victoria, Cleopatra, Buddha, London, Australia, Mars, Asia

When we talk about a place which does not have a name, we use a common noun; if it has a name we use a proper noun. For example, we say prison, hospital and house, but we talk about Wandsworth Prison, St Guy's Hospital and The White House.

See also:

Noun Index


Apposition
120 - Apposition

When we use two noun phrases together, this is called apposition:

{noun phrase} + {noun phrase}

Diane, doyen of the peripatetic world, got on her bike.

Ace reporter Clark Kent leapt into a phone booth.

In the first example, we do not need doyen of the peripatetic world to understand Diane, so we use commas to separate the two phrases. The sentence would still be acceptable without the second phrase:

Diane got on her bike.

In the second example, ace reporter needs Clark Kent to make the sentence understood so no commas are used. The sentence would not make sense without the second phrase:

Ace reporter leapt into a phone booth.

See also:

Noun Index


Countable & Non-Countable Nouns
114 - Countable & Non-Countable Nouns

introduction; countable; non-countable and common mistakes

1) There are two main groups of nouns in English. It is important to know the difference between these two groups as there are different grammar rules for each. Note that non-countable nouns are sometimes known as mass nouns.

2) Most nouns are countable; this means we can count the object (or concept) they refer to. We can, for example, stand in a field and count:

four goats and three cows

A countable noun has two forms: singular and plural. We use the singular form when we talk about one object (or concept), and we use the plural form when we talk about more than one object (or concept). We can say:

There is one book on the table, and three books on the chair.

I have one house, but the Queen has fifteen houses.

When the countable noun is the subject of the sentence, the verb is singular or plural, depending on the noun (this is called subject-verb agreement):

The book is on the table.

The cars are in the garage.

3) Some objects (or concepts) cannot be counted. We cannot stand on the beach and count:

four sands and three waters

sand and water are examples of non-countable nouns and they only have a singular form:

The sand is hot.

The water is cold.

Common non-countable nouns include:

liquids	beer, cola, juice, lemonade, milk, tea, water, whiskey, wine
foodstuffs	butter, cheese, grain, meat, pepper, rice, salt, sugar, wheat
miscellaneous	advice, furniture, hair, knowledge, luggage, money, news, pasta, progress, research, spaghetti, toothpaste

If the non-countable noun is the subject of a sentence, we use it with a singular verb:

My money is in my wallet.

Milk is very good for babies.

This butter has melted.

This whiskey tastes awful!

4) Students often make mistakes with these non-countable nouns:

furniture, hair, money, news, research, spaghetti

Remember, non-countable nouns have a singular verb and do not have a plural form:

He gave me some information about flights to Rome.

The news is not good.

The spaghetti is ready now.

I've got a lot of work to do.

See also:

Noun Index


Quantity with Countable & Non-Countable Nouns
115 - Quantity with Countable & Non-Countable Nouns

introduction; plurals; non-countable nouns; container

1) When we talk about quantity with countable and non-countable nouns, there are a number of different ways we can do this.

2) To express quantity with a countable noun, we can use a number and a plural noun:

There are three bananas on the table.

He had twenty-seven sheep on the farm.

If the number is one, we usually use an article instead:

He has a cold.

Or we can be non-specific and talk about approximate numbers:

There are some people in the office.

There are a few problems.

3) To express quantity with a non-countable noun, we cannot use a number and a plural form:

There are three rices in the bowl.

Can you give me four informations?

Instead, we must use some, any, much, little and a singular form:

Here is some sugar.

There isn't much wine in the bottle.

4) When we talk about a non-countable noun, we can use an expression which shows an amount or a container:

{quantity} + {amount/container} + {of}

There is one box of rice in the cupboard.

He drank three glasses of wine.

I'd like a pound of cheese, please.

Some other common expressions include: bar, bottle, box, cup, jar, kilo, loaf, metre, mile, packet, piece, pound, sheet, slice, tin, ton, tube, yard.

See also:

Noun Index


Countable & Non-Countable

non-countable to countable; different meanings; speaking generally & specifically.

1) When we use non-countable nouns, we often use them in expressions:

three cups of tea

two glasses of whiskey

With some common expressions, we can delete the container and make the non-countable noun, countable:

three teas

two whiskies

2) Some nouns are countable and non-countable but with different meanings:

He suffers badly from the cold.

I have a cold.

In the first example, cold is non-countable and refers to cold weather and low temperature; in the second example, a cold refers to a blocked nose and lots of sneezing.

3) Often when we talk about an example of a non-countable noun then we make the noun countable:

I'd like some wine, please.

This is a fine wine.

In the first example we are talking about wine in general; in the second we are talking about a specific wine, an example of the whole.

See also:

Noun Index


Noun Groups
112 - Noun Groups

countable & non-countable; pronouns; concrete abstract & proper; noun phrases and gerunds.

1) Some nouns can be counted; you can count the number of books in the room and the number of words on a page, etc. These are countable nouns:

There are fifteen books in the room.

There are one hundred and fifty words on this page.

However, some nouns cannot be counted. You cannot, for example, count water:

There is one water in the sea.

There are two waters in the sea.

This is because water is a non-countable noun; we cannot put a number in front of it. Non-countable nouns are sometimes known as uncountable nouns or mass nouns.

2) Sometimes we use a pronoun to replace a noun in a sentence. We do this so we do not have to repeat the same words again and again:

Brian opened the door, Brian paused by the door, and then Brian closed the door quietly.

becomes:

Brian opened the door, he paused by it, and then he closed it quietly.

In this case, he and it are pronouns; they mean Brian and the door.

3) It is easy to see a book; because we can see it, we call it a concrete noun. Sometimes it is impossible to see a noun; for example these are also nouns but you cannot see them:

love, happiness, life

These are abstract nouns and they refer to concepts rather than objects. We also talk about proper nouns which are people's names:

Peter, Buddha

4) Look at these sentences:

The man ate the cake.

The big man ate the cake.

The very big man ate the cake.

The very big Australian man ate the cake.

We have taken a simple noun, man, and added other words to it to make a noun phrase. A noun phrase works in the same way as a single noun.

5) When we have a verb which we want to use as a noun, we can use a gerund (a verbal noun). This is made using the -ing form of the verb:

Skiing is fun.

He liked walking and cycling.

See also:

Noun Index


Noun Phrase Patterns
119 - Noun Phrase Patterns

simple; determiner; adjectives; nouns; noun phrases

1) The simplest pattern for a noun phrase is the noun standing alone:

I

Eric

cats

2) Very often we use a determiner with a noun. Determiners are added to the front of the phrase:

{determiner} + {noun}

the man

a dog

some people

{determiner} + {noun phrase}

the old man

a dog and a bone

some fifty thousand people

3) We can add adjectives to a noun; they usually come before the noun:

[determiner] + {adjective[s]} + {noun}

the old grey whistle

happy people

good work

4) We can put two nouns together; the first noun acts like an adjective and gives us more information about the second noun:

 [determiner] + {noun} + {noun}

computer programs

some record players

5) When we put two nouns together to make a noun phrase we can use this pattern:

{noun} + [noun(s)] + {and} + {noun}

When the noun phrase has and then it is plural and takes a plural verb:

Jimmy, Eric and Pete are friends.

See also:

Noun Index


Noun Phrases
118 - Noun Phrases

When we use nouns, we often use them with one or more other words to make a noun phrase.

A noun phrase is a group of words which acts just like a single noun in a sentence. All these sentences follow the same pattern:

{noun phrase} + {verb phrase}

I	smiled.
The man	smiled.
The man in the big hat	smiled.
The man in the big white hat	smiled.
The old man in the big white hat	smiled.

Very often we put a determiner in front of the noun to make a noun phrase:

{determiner} + {noun}

a banana

the house

some people

And we often add adjectives to tell us more about the noun:

{determiner} + {adjective} + {noun}

a big banana

the old house

some angry people

See also:

Noun Index


Nouns
111 - Nouns

When we want to talk about something, we use a noun. A noun is the name of the thing we can see. Here are some common nouns:

book, telephone, aeroplane, teacher

There are only two forms of nouns: singular and plural. book is a singular noun, this means it refers only to one book. If we want to talk about more than one book, we must use a plural noun:

books, telephones, aeroplanes, teachers

To make a plural noun, we usually add -s to the end of the singular noun.

See also:

Noun Index


Personal Pronouns
123 - Personal Pronouns

table; subject pronouns; object pronouns; possessive pronouns; reflexive pronouns; one; you & one.

1) This is a full table of personal pronouns:

	subject	object	reflexive	possessive	possessive
sing	I	me	myself	my	mine
sing	you	you	yourself	your	yours
sing masc	he	him	himself	his	his
sing fem	she	her	herself	her	hers
sing neut	it	it	itself	its	its
sing neut	one	one	oneself	one's	one's
plural	we	us	ourselves	our	ours
plural	you	you	yourselves	your	yours
plural	they	them	themselves	their	theirs

2) We can replace the subject of a sentence with a personal pronoun:

Alice looked at the cat.

She looked at the cat.

3) We can replace the object of a sentence:

Alice looked at the cat.

Alice looked at it.

4) We can replace the reflexive noun of a sentence:

Alice washed Alice.

Alice washed herself.

5) We can replace the possessive determiner and its noun:

The Queen looked at the Queen's cat and Alice looked at Alice's cat.

The Queen looked at her cat and Alice looked at hers.

6) We can use one as a pronoun to replace anybody and we use it to talk about people in general but it is not used very much these days and is very formal:

One must accept that one has limitations.

To truly know oneself requires great commitment.

One must obey one's superiors.

Note that the possessive takes an apostrophe.

7) We use the pronoun you in two ways:

7a) we can use you to refer to the person we are talking to:

Do you want to come with me?

Where did you go last night?

7b) We can also use you to talk about people in general:

You can't get a good job without qualifications.

What you need to do is increase public spending to reduce inflation.

When we are talking about people in general, we can also use one instead of you. This is more formal and less common in everyday speech:

One can't get a good job without qualifications.

What one needs is a change in leadership.

See also:

Noun Index


Reflexive Pronouns
124 - Reflexive Pronouns

definition; examples; emphatic use

1) We use reflexive pronouns to talk about the same person or thing that was mentioned in the subject:

Alice looked at herself in the mirror.

They enjoyed themselves at the beach.

We use reflexive pronouns when the person who does something, and the person who has something done, are the same.

Note the difference between:

They looked at each other.

They looked at themselves.

In the first example, each person looked at the other people; in the second example the each person looked only at himself or herself.

2) These are some examples of the reflexive use:

2a) enjoy yourself

enjoy yourself = have a good time

I hope you enjoy yourself on holiday.

2b) help yourself

help yourself = take some

Can I have a biscuit, please? - Go on, help yourself.

2c) behave yourself

behave yourself = be good

I'm going out now, children, so behave yourselves.

3) We use reflexive pronouns to give emphasis to the subject, to stress that the subject worked alone. We use it either at the end of the sentence or after the noun it refers to.

I myself did all this work.

She designed all the decorations herself.

See also:

Noun Index


Pronouns
122 - Pronouns

definition; personal pronouns

1) Pronouns are used in place of nouns in a sentence.

William took the ball and then William kicked the ball.

We replace nouns that are repeated by pronouns:

William took the ball and then he kicked it.

The type of pronoun we use depends on the type of noun we replace:

2) When we replace proper nouns, we use personal pronouns:

Alice looked at Alice's reflection in the mirror before washing Alice.

Alice looked at her reflection in the mirror before washing herself.

See also:

Noun Index


Gender
117 - Gender

overview; family relations; animals; jobs; gender-specific nouns; gender-specific pronouns; animals, cars & countries.

1) When many languages use nouns, the nouns are often grouped as masculine, feminine or neuter. In English these groups are very simple to make:

masculine	men and boys
feminine	women and girls
neuter	everything else including animals

2) Family relations have masculine and feminine forms:

masculine	feminine
bridegroom	bride
brother	sister
father	mother
husband	wife
nephew	niece
son	daughter
uncle	aunt
widower	widow

3) Animals have masculine and feminine forms; these are some common ones:

masculine	feminine
bull	cow
cock	hen
dog	bitch
drake	duck
fox	vixen
gander	goose
lion	lioness
stallion	mare
tiger	tigress

4) Some jobs have masculine and feminine forms; these are some common ones:

masculine	feminine
actor	actress
author	authoress
duke	duchess
hero	heroine
king	queen
male nurse	nurse
manager	manageress
monk	nun
policeman	policewoman
spokesman	spokeswoman
steward	stewardess
waiter	waitress

5) A word like doctor can apply to a man or a woman; the word is not gender-specific. However, a word like nun can only apply to a woman which makes it gender-specific.

Some people think that some gender-specific words are sexist. To avoid being gender-specific, we can use alternatives:

spokesperson

police officer

Or we can use one of the forms for both men and women:

She became company manager after her promotion.

My mother is the author of several popular romance novels.

Both Eric and Jane worked as nurses in the same hospital.

6) When we talk about a member of a mixed group of people we can say:

A good scientist must keep careful notes of his or her work.

This, however, is not very elegant. One popular alternative is to use a masculine pronoun as a neuter pronoun:

A good scientist must keep careful notes of his work.

But this is sexist; it implies that scientists are men. A better alternative is to use the pronoun their instead:

A good scientist must keep careful notes of their work.

7) When we talk about an object, it is neuter. However, if we give the object a personality, we can make the noun masculine or feminine.

7a) This happens with pet animals, or animals we know well:

The dog stayed in her bed and did not eat anything; I think she is ill.

Note dog is a masculine and neuter noun

7b) It also happens with cars and ships which are often female:

The Titanic sank on her maiden voyage; she hit an iceberg.

My car wouldn't start - I think she is ready for the scrap heap.

7c) Countries are sometimes female:

Britain called on her allies to help fight the threat.

People sometimes talk about their countries as being the motherland or the fatherland.

See also:

Noun Index


Gerunds
121 - Gerunds

Sometimes we need to use a verb as the subject or object of a sentence. In this case we can use the gerund.

We make the gerund by adding -ing to the verb. It has exactly the same form as the present participle of the verb:

Walking keeps me fit.

I like fishing.

See also:

Noun Index


Passive Voice Index
991 - Passive Voice Index

To read about the passive voice, see:

Passive Voice

Passive Verbs

Passives Forms

Passive by...

Causative Form

Passive Object Clauses

Passive Two Objects

Passive Object Complements

Passive Use


Passive Voice
137 - Passive Voice

information order; form

1) The most important information in a sentence usually comes first. We use the passive voice to change the order of the information in a sentence:

active	Elsa ate the cake.
passive	The cake was eaten by Elsa.

2) We usually use the active voice rather than the passive. These are the two forms:

active	{subject} + {verb} + {object}
passive	{object} + {be} + {past participle} + {by} + {subject}

There are three steps to making a passive sentence:

2a) make the object of the active sentence (the cake), the subject of the passive sentence:

active	Elsa ate the cake.
passive	The cake

2b) make the verb passive; we do this by using be and the past participle:

active	Elsa ate the cake.
passive	The cake was eaten

2c) make the subject of active sentence (Elsa) the object of the passive sentence - we introduce it with by:

active	Elsa ate the cake.
passive	The cake was eaten by Elsa.
See also:

Passive Voice Index


Causative Form
142 - Causative Form

use; form

1) The causative form is used when we speak about a professional service which someone has done for us.

She is having her typewriter repaired.

2) We make the causative form:

{subject} + {have} + {object} + {past participle}

I had my hair cut.

She will have her house decorated.

They are having their garden landscaped.

He is going to have his car resprayed.

We can use the same pattern to talk about an often bad experience:

She had her house burgled.

We had our money stolen.

We had our car vandalised.

We can also use get instead of have but this is informal.

See also:

Passive Voice Index


Passive by…
141 - Passive by...

Sometimes it is not necessary to put the by... part of the sentence in a passive voice:

active	{subject} + {verb} + {object}
passive	{object} + {verb} + [by + subject]

This can happen if we do not know who the subject is:

The money was stolen.

- by someone, I don't know who.

Or we can leave it out if we do not want to say who the subject is:

The window was broken.

- I know who broke the window (it was me) but I don't want to admit it!

We can also leave out the by... part of the sentence if it is not important to know who the subject is, or if it is obvious:

My house was painted last June.

Tin has been mined in Cornwall since before the Romans invaded.

See also:

Passive Voice Index


Passive Object Clauses
143 - Passive Object Clauses

When we use an object clause, we can have a special passive structure:

active	{subject} + {verb phrase} + [that] + {object clause}
passive	{it} + {passive verb} + [that] + {object clause}
active	People say Churchill was a clever man.
passive	It is said that Churchill was a clever man.

We can make a passive like this when the object verb is present simple or past simple:

active	{subject} + {verb phrase} + {object} + {object verb} ...
passive	{object} + {passive verb} + {passive infinitive} ...
active	People say Churchill is a clever man.
passive	Churchill is said to be a clever man.
active	People say Churchill was a clever man.
passive	Churchill is said to have been a clever man.

This happens when you talk about an opinion, suggestion or belief which uses a verb like: believe, claim, estimate, say, think and so on.

We often use these patterns with reporting verbs such as: agree, arrange, announce, believe, consider, decide, expect, fear, feel, find, hope, intend, know, mention, regret, report, say, suppose, think, understand.

See also:

Passive Voice Index


Passive Object Complements
144 - Passive Object Complements

In many situations we use an object complement:

Many people consider Churchill the greatest British statesman.

Churchill is the most important part of the sentence, so we make a passive sentence to bring it to the front:

Churchill is considered the greatest British statesman.

The pattern for this is:

active	{subject} + {verb} + {object} + {object complement}
passive	{object} + {passive verb} + {object complement}
See also:

Passive Voice Index


Passive Two Objects
145 - Passive Two Objects

Sometimes you can make two different passive sentences if the original sentence has two objects:

{subject} + {verb} + {direct object} + {indirect object}

The boy gave the stale cream cake to the teacher.

{direct object} + {passive verb} + {indirect object} ...

The stale cream cake was given to the teacher [by the boy].

{indirect object} + {passive verb} + {direct object} ...

The teacher was given the stale cream cake [by the boy].

We usually make the person the subject (i.e. the last example).

See also:

Passive Voice Index


Passive Use
139 - Passive Use

general; writing

Usually, we put the most important information in a sentence at the beginning.

{subject} + {verb} + {object}

The subject is the theme of the sentence. Sometimes, however, we want to stress the object in the sentence. This can happen when the object is more important than the subject.

A man shot the President.

In this case, the fact that the President is dead is very important, while the assassin is less so. It is not important who did the action; it is the result that we wish to emphasise:

The President has been shot.

In other situations, we may not know who did the action. Someone broke the window in my house but I don't know who it was:

The window has been broken.

(I could say: Someone broke the window, but again I am more concerned with the wind whistling through my house than a vandal.)

Finally, we might be talking about public opinion:

Pelé is said to be the greatest footballer ever.

In this case I really do not care who says this. I want to talk about Pelé, not football enthusiasts and their opinions.

2) In your writing, try not to use the passive voice too much. Generally we use it for technical documents, manuals and weather forecasts.

The liquid should be placed in a beaker and heated to 75.

(Note that in this grammar guide we have used the active voice instead of the passive. This is because the active is easier to understand.)

See also:

Passive Voice Index


Passive Verbs
140 - Passive Verbs

passive forms; modal & auxiliary verbs; passive infinitives; uncommon forms; get -be

1) We make the passive voice by changing the positions of the subject and object and using a passive verb:

active	{subject} + {verb} + {object}
passive	{object} + {be} + {past participle} + {by} + {subject}

To make the verb passive, we use these patterns:

active	Eric kisses Amanda.
simple tenses:	{be} + {past participle}
	Amanda is kissed by Eric.
	Amanda was kissed by Eric.
continuous tenses:	{be} + {being} + {past participle}
	Amanda is being kissed by Eric.
	Amanda was being kissed by Eric.
perfect tenses:	{have} + {been} + {past participle}
	Amanda has been kissed by Eric.
	Amanda had been kissed by Eric.

2) When we use auxiliary verbs, we add them to the front of the structures above:

{modal/auxiliary/be going to} + {be} + {past participle}

Amanda could be kissed by Eric.

Amanda is going to be kissed by Eric.

{modal/auxiliary/be going to} + {be} + {being} + {past participle}

Amanda might be being kissed by Eric.

{modal/auxiliary/be going to} + {have} + been} + {past participle}

Amanda will have been kissed by Eric.

Amanda ought to have been kissed by Erica.

3) To make the passive infinitives:

active	passive
{to} + {infinitive}	{to} + {be} + {past participle}
Someone ought to help him.	He ought to be helped.
{to} + {have} + {past participle}	{to} + {have} + {been} + {past participle}
Someone ought to have helped him.	He ought to have been helped.

4) Occasionally you may see these, but they are not very common:

perfect continuous:

{have} + {been} + {being} + {past participle}

Amanda has been being kissed by Eric.

Amanda had been being kissed by Eric.

future perfect continuous:

{modal/auxiliary/be going to} + {have} + {been} + {being} + {past part.}

Amanda will have been being kissed by Eric.

5) Sometimes you can use get instead of be to make the sentence a little more informal:

The phone box was vandalised last night.

The phone box got vandalised last night.

This is generally used in speech rather than writing.

See also:

Passive Voice Index


Passives Forms
138 - Passives Forms

using by...; two objects; object clauses; causative form

1) Sometimes it is not necessary to use the by... part of the passive:

The cat was kidnapped by someone.

The cat was kidnapped.

2) When the active sentence has two objects, we can make two passives:

active:	She gave Amanda a box of chocolates.

passive:	Amanda was given a box of chocolates.

passive:	A box of chocolates was given to Amanda.

3) Also, if the active sentence has an object clause, we can make a special passive:

active:	People think he was a genius.

passive:	It is thought he was a genius.

passive:	He is thought to have been a genius.

4) When someone does a professional service for us, we use the causative form. It is also used for a bad experience:

I am having my car resprayed.

I had my wallet stolen.

See also:

Passive Voice Index


Preposition Index
990 - Preposition Index

To read about prepositions, see:

Prepositions

Prepositions of Place

Prepositions of Time

Word & Phrase + Preposition


Word & Phrase + Preposition
156 - Word & Phrase + Preposition

Some words and phrases very often take the same preposition in a sentence. This is a list of common structures:

word	prep
afraid	of
apologise	for
arrange	for
bored	with
care	for
different	from
fond	of
good	at
insist	on
intention	of
interested	in
keen	on
look	at
ready	for
succeed	in, at
take part	in
tired	of
worry	about
intend	to
See also:

Preposition Index


Prepositions
155 - Prepositions

We use prepositions in many different ways.

1) Prepositions of place tell us where something is or happens:

on the sofa

under the bed

2) We use prepositions of time to tell us when something happens:

at Christmas

in July

3) Some words are often followed by the same prepositions:

listen to

succeed in

4) Some verbs take a preposition to make a new verb. These are called phrasal verbs:

put up with

hand out

See also:

Preposition Index


Prepositions of Place
157 - Prepositions of Place

There are two types of place preposition. Static prepositions are stationary, they refer to a place. Mobile prepositions imply movement; they suggest moving from one place to another:

He lived in London.

He moved to London.

Whether the preposition is static or mobile usually depends on the meaning of the verb.

These are common prepositions of place and their uses - there are a number of exceptions though:

1) at: the place where something happens

He lives at 13 Acacia Avenue.

He's at the theatre, sitting at the back.

We'll stop at Aylsham en route to London.

2) in: something all around

We sat in silence in the cinema.

We live in Aylsham.

He lives in Spain.

3) into/out of: movement from outside to inside a place or vice versa

We walked out of the kitchen and into the dining room.

I drove out of Buxton and into Aylsham.

4) on: the top surface

The book is on the table.

The boat is on the sea.

5) onto/off: movement to the top surface of an object from another object

The cat jumped off the table and onto the chair.

I climbed off the roof and onto the ladder.

6) Other prepositions of place include: above, across, along, around, behind, below, beside, by, in, in front of, into, near, next to, on, opposite, out of, over, past, round, through, to, towards, under.

See also:

Preposition Index


Prepositions of Time
158 - Prepositions of Time

We use these prepositions to talk about time:

{in} + {year/month/season/time of day (except night)}

in 1976

in March

{on} + {day/date}

on Monday

on the 15th of July

{at} + {clock time/night}

at ten o'clock

at midnight

See also:

Preposition Index


Reported Speech
171 - Reported Speech

introduction; statements; questions; reporting verbs; questions; pronouns

1) We use reported speech to report what someone has said earlier. Reported speech is sometimes known as indirect speech (what the person actually says is known as direct speech).

2) When we report statements, we use this pattern:

{person} + {reporting verb} + [that] + {past statement}

"We will go out this evening."

He said [that] we would go out this evening.

or less commonly:

{past statement} + {person} + {reporting verb}

{past statement} + {reporting verb} + {person}

We would go out this evening, he said.

We would go out this evening, said he.

Reporting verbs include: agree, answer, be sure, explain, explain, interrupt, know, mention, say, tell, think, write.

4) With questions, we do not invert the subject and verb:

"Where is it?" asked Pete.

Pete asked where it was.

Reporting verbs include: ask, enquire, want to know, wonder

5) If the reporting verb is in the present tense, the verb in direct speech does not change:

"I like it," says Jeff.

Jeff says he likes it.

If the reporting verb is in the past tense, then the direct verb goes into the past:

"I like it," says Jeff.

Jeff said he liked it.

If the direct verb is in the past tense, then it stays the same:

"I liked it," says Jeff.

Jeff says he liked it.

or

"I liked it," says Jeff.

Jeff said he liked it.

Would, could, should, might, & ought to stay the same:

"I might go," said Jeff.

Jeff said he might go.

If the reporting verb is in the past, we change the direct verb to the past also. But if the statement is still true, we can optionally keep it in the present:

"I like you," said Pete.

Pete said he likes me.

In reporting questions with a yes/no answer, we use if/whether. Verbs change as per statements:

"Do you want to go?" asked Eric.

Eric asked if/whether I wanted to go.

6) Pronouns change like this in reported speech:

I - he/she

my - his/her

here - there

next day - tomorrow

7) We report orders:

{tell} + {direct object} + {infinitive}

He told me to go.

8) With requests we use this pattern:

{ask} + {object} + {infinitive}

He asked me to leave.

or ask for

9) When we use a reporting verb with direct speech, we can invert the subject-verb order:

"Hello," Peter said.

"Hello," said Peter.

There is no difference in meaning between the two forms. We often invert when the subject is long:

"Hello," cried the rather heavy gentleman with the cigar.

 We do not usually invert when we use pronouns as this sounds old fashioned:

"Hello," said he.

9) For that.. clauses, we often use 'should' in reported speech orders etc:

He said that we should go.


say & tell
401 - say & tell

introduction; optional objects; direct speech; indirect speech

1) tell must have an indirect object, say does not.

{say} + {something}

She said she was leaving.

{tell} + {somebody} + {something}

She told me she was leaving.

2) tell can be used with an optional direct object in these expressions and say cannot:

tell (someone) a lie, the truth, a story, the time

tell (someone's) fortune

say can be used with an object in these expressions and tell cannot:

say someone's name

3) say can be used in direct speech, while tell is used only for orders, instructions or pieces of information in direct speech:

I said, "Hi!"

I told him, "Get off my land!"

I told him, "The train leaves at five-fifteen."


Singular & Plural Nouns #1
125 - Singular & Plural Nouns #1

regular; irregular; same plurals; alternative plurals

1) Most nouns in English are regular. To make them plural we add -s to the end:

singular	plural
1 book	2 books
1 car	4 cars
1 house	8 houses

2) Some nouns have two very different words for the singular and the plural:

singular	plural
1 tooth	2 teeth
1 goose	2 geese
1 foot	2 feet
1 child	2 children
1 ox	2 oxen
1 oasis	2 oases
1 axis	2 axes
1 man	2 men
1 woman	2 women
1 mouse	2 mice
1 medium	2 media

3) Some nouns are the same whether they are singular or plural:

singular	plural
1 sheep	2 sheep
1 salmon	2 salmon
1 aircraft	2 aircraft
1 trout	2 trout

4) Some nouns have alternative plurals:

singular	plural
1 penny	2 pence/pennies
1 person	2 persons/people
1 fish	2 fish/fishes
See also:

Noun Index

Singular & Plural Nouns #2


Singular & Plural Nouns #2
126 - Singular & Plural Nouns #2

no singular; singular plurals; singular & plural; collective; measurement; pair nouns

1) Some nouns have a plural but no singular, for example:

clothes, contents, earnings, goods, riches, savings, thanks, troops

These nouns take a plural verb:

The contents are labelled on the jar.

His savings were wiped out in the crash.

2) Some nouns look plural but are, in fact, singular, for example:

athletics, gymnastics, mathematics, measles, news, politics

The verb is singular here:

His measles is spreading.

Politics is boring!

3) Some words are either plural or singular, for example:

headquarters, means, works (= factory/workshop, etc.)

The verb can be either singular or plural; there is no real difference:

Their headquarters are situated in central London.

Their headquarters is situated in central London.

4) A collective noun describes a group of nouns describing the same thing, for example:

army, Arsenal, audience, class, club, committee, company, crowd, gang, group, Microsoft, public, team, the BBC

We use singular verb if we think of the group as a whole:

Arsenal is playing well today.

Or plural if we are thinking of the individuals:

Arsenal are a mixed bunch of players.

Some groups, however, are always plural:

The police are coming!

The cattle are lowing.

5) When we have a noun phrase of measurement, we use a singular verb:

Twenty kilos is the maximum weight for suitcases.

Six feet six inches is tall for a man.

6) When we talk about a pair of things, we always use the plural, for example:

a pair of: glasses, jeans, scissors, trousers

We use a plural verb:

Your jeans are ripped.

See also:

Noun Index


Verb Index
989 - Verb Index

To read about verbs, see:

Verbs

Verb Forms

Verb Tenses

Verb Patterns

Verb Phrases

Irregular Verbs

Phrasal Verbs

Verb + Preposition

Auxiliary Verbs

Modal Verbs

Modal Requests

Modal Ability

Modal Necessity

Modal Offers

Modal Permission

Modal Possibility


Verb Tense
252 - Verb Tenses

Infinitives

Future

Imperatives

Present Simple #1	Present Simple #2
Present Continuous #1	Present Continuous #2
Past Simple #1	Past Simple #2
Past Continuous #1	Past Continuous #2
Present Perfect Simple #1	Present Perfect Simple #2
Present Perfect Continuous #1	Present Perfect Continuous #2
Past Perfect Simple #1	Past Perfect Simple #2
Past Perfect Continuous #1

Simple or Continuous?

Present Perfect Continuous or Present Perfect Simple?

Present Perfect Simple or Past Simple?


Simple or Continuous?
286 - Simple or Continuous?

Introduction; non-continuous verbs; meaning changes

1) Students sometimes confuse a simple tense with a continuous tense. This topic looks at the differences between the two tenses.

We use the continuous to talk about things which are happening over a period of time. The simple tenses are used to talk about things which happen and finish; the duration of these events is not important.

2) Some verbs contain in their meaning an idea of permanency. For example, when we use the verb like, we are talking about a feeling we have which will last for a long time:

I like football.

She does not like boring books.

Do they like living in London?

For this reason, we do not usually use like in a continuous tense. There are other verbs generally used only in simple tenses, for example:

2a) verbs of mental activity: know, understand, think

2b) verbs of emotions: like, love, hate, desire

2c) verbs of senses: see, smell, touch, taste, hear

2d) verbs of possession: own, belong, possess, have

2e) verbs of reporting: say, tell, ask, answer

2f) miscellaneous verbs: need, contain, depend, consist, seem

Note: with verbs of perception we can often use can:

I can hear him but I cannot see him.

Can you smell the roses?

3) We can use some of the verbs listed above in continuous tenses but their meaning changes when we do.

In general, the simple form refers to a long-term mental state; it is about a belief. The continuous form refers to what is happening right now; it is an active effort:

What do you think? - I think you are wrong.

What are you thinking? - I am thinking about our holiday.

We never use have in a continuous way to mean possession. In the next example, we use have to mean making an active effort:

I have long hair.

I am having my hair cut.

Simple tenses generally refer to actions which are permanent, while continuous tenses usually talk about things which are happening for a while only - they will stop sometime.

I live in London.

I am living in London.

In the first example, the speaker was probably born in London. London is their home and they have no intention of leaving.

In the second example, the speaker perhaps has just moved to London, or is living there for a short while only before moving somewhere else.

See also:

Verb Index


Sentence Index
988 - Sentence Index

To read about sentences, see:

Sentences

Sentence Types

Predicates

Subjects

Complements

Objects

Direct & Indirect Objects

Statement Patterns

Short Answers

Exclamations


Sentence Types
182 - Sentence Types

statements; negatives; questions; imperatives; exclamations; short answers

1) We use statements to give information:

I read the book.

She lives in China.

2) A negative is a negative statement; it usually talks about something not happening:

I did not read the book.

They can't run very fast.

3) We use questions to ask someone for some information:

Did you read the book?

Have you seen the news?

4) We use imperatives to give orders to people:

Shut up!

Get out!

5) We use exclamations when we are surprised or angry:

Help!

What a load of rubbish!

6) When someone asks us a simple yes or no question, we can give a short answer:

Yes, I do.

No, I don't.

See also:

Sentence Index


Sentences
181 - Sentences

In every sentence there is a subject. The subject is the theme of the sentence; it is what we are talking about.

Along with the subject, we also have the predicate. This is what we want to say about the subject.

In a statement, these two parts usually follow this pattern:

{subject} + {predicate}

A sentence always starts with a capital letter and ends with a full stop, a question mark or an exclamation mark.

See also:

Sentence Index


Complements
183 - Complements

overview; subject complements; object complements.

1) A complement describes a noun phrase. It can describe the subject of a sentence or an object.

2) When the complement describes the subject, we usually use the verb be:

{subject} + {verb} + {complement}

I am English.

She is tall.

Though we can use other verbs:

I feel ill.

She has grown very tall.

Verbs include: be, become, feel, get, look, seem, smell, sound and taste.

3) When the complement describes the object, it usually follows straight on from the object:

The wine got me drunk.

Eating too much has made her fat.

Verbs include: call, find, get, hate, have, leave, like, make, paint and want.

See also:

Sentence Index


Short Answers
189 - Short Answers

When the answer to a question is yes or no or we have a subject question, we often use a short answer.

Are you rich? - No, I'm not!

Does he smoke? - Yes, he does.

Who killed the dog? - He did.

We can answer with yes or no, but this is less usual than a short answer.

For the verb be and modal or auxiliary verbs, the pattern is:

{yes/no} + {subject} + {auxiliary}

Are we happy? - No, we aren't!

Can you swim? - Yes, I can.

Do you like it? - Yes, we do.

With subject questions:

{subject} + {modal/auxiliary}

Who found it? - I did.

What was found? - This was.

How many have left? - Seventeen have.

Note that when the answer is yes/no + be, we never abbreviate the verb:

Yes, I'm.

No, he's.

See also:

Sentence Index


Statement Patterns
188 - Statement Patterns

simple; object; complement; adverbial

1) In the most basic statement predicate, we use just a verb phrase to tell us what the subject does:

{subject} + {verb phrase}

Paint dries.

Queen Victoria was sleeping.

The man in the large hat had been dancing.

2) With an object predicate, the subject does something to another noun phrase (the object):

{subject} + {verb phrase} + {object}

I painted the wall.

Queen Victoria  told a joke.

The man in the large hat  clapped his hands.

3) With complements, we use a predicate to describe the subject in more detail:

{subject} + {verb phrase} + {complement}

I feel ill.

Victoria  was Queen of England.

The man in the large hat  became a professional dancer.

4) By using an adverbial predicate, we can give more information about the verb or the whole statement:

{subject} + {verb phrase} + {adverbial}

The answer is in the back of the book.

Queen Victoria reigned during the 19th century.

The man in the large hat danced on a stage.

See also:

Sentence Index


Question Index
987 - Question Index

To read about questions, see:

Questions

Question Words #1

Question Words #2

Question Tags

Subject Questions

Direct & Indirect Questions

Negative Questions


Subject Questions
185 - Subject Questions

Question words ask about the object of a statement:

statement:	I work in London.

question:	Where do I work?

answer:	In London.

But we can also ask about the subject. To do this we replace the subject with a question word:

statement:	{subject} + {verb} ...

question:	{question word} + {verb} ...

statement:	Winter is coming.

question:	What is coming?

answer:	Winter is.

statement:	John's father has joined the army.

question:	Whose father has joined the army?

Answer:	John's father.

We cannot use when or where to ask questions about the subject.

See also:

Question Index


Subjects
185 - Subjects

The subject in a sentence, is the star actor' of the sentence; it is the theme. The sentence tells us all about the subject:

Patricia likes dancing.

The man in the big hat enjoys watching the television.

Subjects can be one word or a phrase. The subjects of these sentences are Patricia and The man in the big hat.

The subject of a sentence is a noun phrase and in a statement it comes before the predicate:

{subject} + {predicate}

My father was a soldier.

Ice melts at room temperature.

The subject is either singular or plural. If the subject is singular, so is the verb; if the subject is plural, so is the verb:

One man is enough for this job.

Fifteen pirates are here!

See also:

Sentence Index


Objects
186 - Objects

The subject of a sentence does something to an object. The object is the thing or person who is affected by the subject and the verb.

Patricia ate the cake.

The subject of this sentence is Patricia. She is the star actor'. The verb is ate and this tells us what she does. The object of the sentence is the cake and this is the thing affected by Patricia's action.

The object is a noun phrase and it usually comes after the verb in a sentence:

The king captured the castle.

I kicked the ball.

He has made another record.

They are watching television.

See also:

Sentence Index


Predicates
184 - Predicates

The predicate of a sentence tells us about the subject of a statement:

Plato thought.

My dog is called Bert.

Predicates can be just one word or a phrase. The subjects of these examples are Plato and my dog. The predicates tell us more about Plato and more about my dog.

The predicate of a sentence always has a verb and in a statement it usually comes after the subject:

{subject} + {predicate}

My father was a soldier.

Ice melts at room temperature.

The predicate consists of a verb and we can also include other information in it to describe the whole statement, the subject, the object etc.:

{predicate} = {verb} + [object/complement/adverbial]

See also:

Sentence Index


Miscellaneous Index
986 - Miscellaneous Index

See also the following:

Punctuation

The Alphabet

Polite Offers & Requests

Conjunctions

Using the Grammar Guide


Punctuation
331 - Punctuation

attributive adjectives; predicative adjectives; sentences

1) When we have a list of adjectives and each adjective describes the noun, we use commas to separate the adjectives. Both big and quiet are equally important in this example:

the big, bad wolf

When an adjective describes another adjective, we do not use commas. In this example, we are talking about the big bad wolf as oppose to the small bad wolf:

the big bad wolf

Note that we do not use a comma between the last adjective and the noun:

the big, bad, wolf

the big, bad wolf

2) When the adjectives follow the noun or verb (i.e. the adjectives are predicative) we separate the adjectives with commas and use and to separate the final two:

He appeared angry, disturbed and lonely.

3) All sentences start with a capital letter and they usually end with a full stop:

The film has finished.

When we make a question, we use a question mark instead of a full stop:

Has the film finished?

When we make an exclamation, we use an exclamation mark instead of a full stop:

The film has already finished!


Alphabet
332 - The Alphabet

form; extra information

1) The English alphabet contains 26 letters. These can be divided into vowels and consonants.

The vowels are: a,e,i,o,u

The consonants are: b,c,d,f,g,h,j,k,l,m,n,p,q,r,s,t,v,w,x,y,z

Every word has at least one vowel. There are a few exceptions such as:

fly, hymn, why

These words use the letter y instead of a vowel.

The alphabet has upper case (or capitals):

ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ

and lower case:

abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz

2) The word alphabet comes from alpha and beta, the first two letters of the Greek alphabet. The word vowel comes from the Latin word vowis meaning voice; the word consonant comes from the Latin word consonare meaning sound together.

A very few words contain all five vowels in alphabetical order:

facetious, abstemious

There are a few sentences which contain all twenty six letters of the alphabet. The most famous (with 35 letters) is:

The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog.


Polite Offers & Requests
333 - Polite Offers & Requests

We use a number of standard phrases when we make polite offers or requests:

Would you like a cup of tea?

I will carry your bags.

Do you happen to know the time?

Do you mind if I open the window?

Would you mind helping me?

Please don't smoke.

I'd rather you didn't smoke in here.

Why don't you ask her yourself?


Direct & Indirect Objects
187 - Direct & Indirect Objects

Sometimes we can have a sentence with two objects. We call these objects direct and indirect.

The subject gives the direct object to the indirect object.

{subject} + {verb} + {direct object} + {indirect object}

subject	verb	direct object	indirect object
I	bought	my sister	a present.
The man in the hat	took	the mechanic	the broken car.

We can also change the positions of the direct and indirect object. When we do this, we add to or for:

{subject} + {verb} + {indirect object} + {to/for} + {direct object}

subject	verb	indirect object	to	direct object
I	bought	a present	for	my sister.
The man in the hat	took	the broken car	to	the mechanic.

We can use to with: give, hand, lend, offer, owe, pass, pay, promise, read, sell, send, show, take, teach, tell, and write.

We can use for with: buy, cook, fetch, find, get, leave, make, order, reserve, and save.

We can use to or for with bring:

I brought the problem to Martin.

I brought the problem for Martin.

In the first example, I let Martin look at the problem; in the second example I handed the problem to Martin - he has to deal with it now.

See also:

Sentence Index


Direct & Indirect Questions
216 - Direct & Indirect Questions

We can ask a direct question:

What time is it?

Or, to be more formal or polite, we can ask an indirect question:

Do you know what time it is?

We make an indirect question by using a phrase and then a statement. Note that even though this is a question, we do not invert the subject and verb or use an auxiliary verb:

{indirect phrase} + {statement}

Can you remember where you put them?

Do you know how long the flight will be?

When the question can be answered with yes or no, we use if:

{indirect phrase} + {if} + {statement}

Would you ask him if the train has arrived yet?

Could you tell me if this is Athens station?

We can also use question words to make indirect statements:

{indirect phrase} + {question word} + {statement}

I don't know what you saw in her!

She can't decide where to go on holiday.

See also:

Question Index


Exclamations
190 - Exclamations

use; form; question words.

1) We use exclamations to express surprise, anger etc.:

What an idiot!

How fantastic!

2) There are a few main forms of exclamations:

{what} + {non-countable noun phrase}

What luck!

{what} + {article} + {countable noun phrase}

What a lunatic!

{how} + {adjective}

How incredible!

How curious.

3) When we use a question word in an exclamation, we do not invert the subject and verb:

What a brilliant goal!

Look how big it is!

See also:

Sentence Index


Question Tags
214 - Question Tags

use; form; notes.

1) We use question tags at the end of sentences when we want check something, when want someone to do something or when we show surprise:

You're English, aren't you?

You've got five minutes to spare, haven't you?

You're not going to leave, are you?

2) For positive statements we use the negative particle not:

{statement} + {auxiliary/modal} + [not] + {subject}

If there is no auxiliary or modal, we use do:

{statement} + {do} + [not] + {subject}

She was not here, was she?

It cannot be verified, can it?

We will win, won't we?

She likes me, doesn't she?

They didn't stay, did they?

3) We use question tags in three ways:

3a) to verify information; when we are fairly certain of a fact and want merely to check it, we can use a question tag:

You're a Sagittarius, aren't you?

She isn't French, is she?

3b) to ask someone to do something; often this is used when we want someone to agree with what we say:

He's ugly, isn't he?

You're clever, aren't you? Can you help me with my homework?

3c) to show surprise in a negative way when we cannot really believe something is true - we use this only in negative sentences:

You're not marrying her, are you?

She isn't still talking, is she?

4) After let's... and offers & suggestions we use shall:

Let's go, shall we?

After imperatives we use will/would/can/could:

Leave us for a moment, would you?

See also:

Question Index


Question Words #1
212 - Question Words #1

As well as inversion and using do, we can also use special question words to make questions. These look for extra information.

statement:	She lives in Rome.

question: 	Does she live in Rome?

question:	Where does she live?

answer:	Rome.

To make this kind of question, we use this pattern:

{question word} + {modal/auxiliary} + {subject} + {infinitive}

question word	used for	example
who	people	Who is your brother?
what	things	What is your name?
where	places	Where do you live?
when	time	When are you leaving?
why	reason	Why did I fail?
how	explanation	How does this work?
whose	possession	Whose car is this?
which	things	Which one is yours?
See also:

Question Index

Question Words #2


Question Words #2
213 - Question Words #2

which & what; formal & informal; why & what...for; what kind; what...like; how

1) When we ask in general, we can use what:

What are you going to buy?

When there is a limited choice, we use which:

Which one are you going to buy? The red or the green?

which and what can also both be followed by noun phrases to ask for specific information:

{which/what} + {noun phrase} ...

What time is it?

Which doctor did you go to?

2) formal and informal:

Who did you vote for?

For whom did you vote?

and

What is he working on?

On what is he working?

We can use whom or what after a preposition; it is very formal.

3) Instead of using why we can often use what...for:

Why are you here?

What are you here for?

4) To be very specific, we can say what kind of:

What kind of car did you buy?

5) To make a general enquiry, we can use what...like:

What was Paris like?

What will your new job be like?

6) For more information we can use:

{how} + {adjective/adverb}

How big is the house?

How much was the coat?

How far is London?

How often do you watch television?

See also:

Question Index


Questions
211 - Questions

introduction; inversion; using do; intonation; alternative questions

1) All questions begin with a capital letter and end with a question mark. There are two main ways of asking questions in written English: inversion and using do:

statement: 	You are Spanish.

question:	Are you Spanish?

statement:	You speak Spanish.

question:	Do you speak Spanish?

2) If the verb in a sentence is be, we use inversion to make a question. This means we change the positions of the subject and the verb:

statement:	{subject} + {be} ...

question:	{be} + {subject} ...

statement: 	They were Spanish.

question:	Were they Spanish?

We also use inversion to make questions with modal and auxiliary verbs:

statement:	{subject} + {auxiliary/modal} + [auxiliary] + {main verb}

question:	{auxiliary/modal} + {subject} + [auxiliary] + {main verb}

statement: 	You can see England from here.

question:	Can you see England from here?

statement: 	They should be arriving soon.

question:	Should they be arriving soon?

3) When the verb in a sentence is not be or modal or auxiliary, we use do to make questions.

statement:	{subject} + {verb}

question:	{do} + {subject} + {infinitive}

statement: 	You know Simon.

question:	Do you know Simon?

statement: 	He likes pizza.

question:	Does he like pizza?

statement: 	She broke the record.

question:	Did she break the record?

Notice that do changes for the past tense and when we talk about he, she or it in the present tense:

Do you like...

Does she like...

Did she like...

4) We can also make questions by using a rising intonation at the end of a statement. This is very common in spoken English:

statement:	You're going.  	[falling intonation]

question:	You're going? 	[rising intonation]

5) Alternative questions. These questions are the same as above and use or before the last alternative:

Is she wearing blue or green?

Should we take a bus, the car or a taxi?

See also:

Question Index


Negative Index
985 - Negative Index

To read about negation, see:

Negatives

Negative Words

Negative Questions

Antonymic Phrases


Antonymic Phrases
229 - Antonymic Phrases

use; form.

1) We use antonymic phrases to give different sentences the same meaning:

He remembered and so did she.

He didn't forget and neither did she.

2) We can use the opposite word (an antonym) and a negative:

{word} = {not} + {antonym}

He failed.

He didn't pass.

Sometimes we must turn a phrase into a negative meaning:

Is this the only way?

Isn't there another way?

and

He was almost deaf.

He could hardly hear.

In this case, we use an alternative time adverbial:

I couldn't leave in time to see the match.

I wasn't early enough to see the match.

In this case we need to use there is to avoid a double negative:

I would do anything for you.

I wouldn't do nothing for you.

There's nothing I wouldn't do for you.

See also:

Negative Index


Negative Questions
228 - Negative Questions

We can use negative questions to

1) ask for information:

Who doesn't want some?

Who hasn't got a ticket?

2) to make suggestions:

Why don't we have a party?

Why not leave now?

3) to express surprise

Haven't you finished yet?

Isn't she coming?

4) to ask for confirmation:

Didn't we stay here once before?

Isn't he the famous actor?

5) with a falling intonation, for exclamations

Didn't she do well!

See also:

Negative Index

Question Index


Negative Words
227 - Negative Words

We can make negatives by using negative words:

1) no

There are some people.

There are no people.

2) none

There isn't any left.

There is none left.

3) neither...nor

Either Pete or Jeff will help.

Neither Pete nor Jeff will help.

4) no one, nothing, nobody, nowhere

There is someone in the room.

There is no one in the room.

Using no is stronger than saying isn't any.

See also:

Negative Index


Negatives
226 - Negatives

overview; not; do not; modal & auxiliary; apostrophes; notes

1) We make negatives in two ways. Either using not or by using do not:

I am not going to answer that question.

He did not telephone me in time.

2) When the verb we are using is be we make the negative by adding the negative particle, not:

{be} + {not}

She is not English

They were not here.

3) With other verbs, we make negatives by using do not or does not and the infinitive:

{do} + {not} + {infinitive}

I do not live in London.

She does not live in London.

They did not telephone.

The do verb shows the tense and number of the main verb which is in the infinitive:

positive	negative
I live here.	I do not live here.
She lives here.	She does not live here.
He lived here.	He did not live here.

4) When we use a modal or auxiliary verb, we add not after the first part of the verb:

{auxiliary/modal} + [auxiliary] + [auxiliary] + {infinitive}

I can dance but she can not dance.

I will not be seeing him next week.

Arsenal have not won a match this season.

5) In informal situations, we usually use n't instead of not:

is not = isn't

are not = aren't

would not = wouldn't

have not = haven't

had not = hadn't

There are exceptions:

I am not = I'm not

will not = won't

  shall not = shan't

6) The negative of can is can not. This is sometimes made into one word, cannot:

can not = cannot = can't

Sometimes we change words from positive to negative use:

positive	negative
I have a lot of money.	I don't have much money.
I have already gone.	I haven't gone yet.
I want some too.	I don't want any either.
I have some money.	I have no money.
See also:

Negative Index


Conjunctions
334 - Conjunctions

overview; form

1) When we join clauses together, we use conjunctions. These show the relationship between the two clauses:

If I win the lottery, I will spend all the money on myself.

I'll tell you when the time comes.

Because of you, I lost my job!

2) The conjunction is attached to the sub-clause. The main clause can come first or second:

{main clause} + {conjunction + sub-clause}

You will not beat me no matter how hard you try.

{conjunction + sub-clause} + {main clause}

No matter how hard you try, you will not beat me.

If the sub clause comes first, we separate the two clauses with a comma.


Inversion #1
240 - Inversion #1

Inversion is when we change the normal order of a statement when we put the verb before the subject:

Only when I saw the price did I realise my mistake.

Under no circumstances will we tolerate this kind of behaviour.

{auxiliary} + {subject} + {main verb}

I had hardly walked in before the police arrived.

Hardly had I walked in before the police arrived.

When there is no auxiliary verb, we use do:

I understood what she meant only then.

Only then did I understand what she meant.

Inversion is used a lot when we make questions, exclamations and short answers. It is also very common to use inversion when we report direct speech.

See also:

Inversion #2


Inversion #2
241 - Inversion #2

adverbs; conditionals; comparison; only; negative adverbials

1) With adverbs of place, we often use inversion; this is common in descriptions. Here we do not use an auxiliary do, but the whole verb is put before the subject:

A young man stood against the wall.

Against the wall stood a young man.

2) We can replace if in a conditional sentence with an inversion when we use were, had or should:

If you were younger, you could get in free.

Were you younger, you could get in free.

or

If I had seen you, I would have asked you to the party.

Had I seen you, I would have asked you to the party.

or

If you should want anything, please call me.

Should you want anything, please call me.

3) When we make comparisons with the conjunction as, we can use inversion:

She is beautiful, as her daughter is.

She is beautiful, as is her daughter.

4) When we use an adverbial starting with only at the beginning of a sentence, we use inversion:

Only when I saw him, did I realise how much he had grown.

Only in England does it rain on bank holidays.

With not only, we often use but also:

Not only had we lost our coats but also our wallets.

5) Many negative adverbials take inversion:

Under no circumstances will she...

Seldom have I...

Rarely do we...

Never have I...

Never before has it...

On no account must you...

Not until I...did I...

Hardly had I...when...

Scarcely had we...than...

No sooner had she...than...

So {adjective} was he...that...

We also use inversion with neither, nor & so.


Using the Grammar Guide
335 - Using the Grammar Guide

usage; format

1) The Grammar Guide is made up of several hundred entries on different topics. To see a list of all the entries go to the main index; to see the topics organised according to main grammar groups, click on the contents button.

2) This guide uses certain styles:

2a) All examples are shown in this colour.

2b) An example with a line through it means that it is not acceptable English; there is a mistake in the example:

The bigger mans eated the cakes all.

2c) We use curly brackets {} to show the pattern for a structure and the class of word which can fit in:

{subject} + {verb} ...

The three dots mean other words can follow.

2d) When the word in curly brackets is in italics, it means a form of the word can be used:

{be} = {be} or {is} or {am} or {are} or {being} or {been}

2e) When a word is in bold type it means the word must be used as is and cannot be altered.

2f) If a word or phrase is in [square brackets], it means it is optional and does not have to be used:

{subject} + {say} + [that] ...

He said that he saw a ghost.

He said he saw a ghost.

Bold type in examples is used to highlight a word.

2g) A straight vertical line | separates clauses:

If you go | it will be a bad time for us all.

2h) If a word has a line underneath it, this means you can click on the word to go to a separate topic about that word.

2i) If a word is underlined like this, it means you can click on the word to get a definition of it.


Modal Ability
280 - Modal Ability

usage; questions.

1) To show degrees of ability, we can use modal verbs. These show:

1a) ability or opportunity in the present:

She can play the piano.

She is able to play the piano.

1b) ability or opportunity in the past:

She could play the piano.

She was able to play the piano.

1c) ability in the future:

He could do your job given the opportunity.

I will never be able to lift that cupboard alone.

1d) to show ability; we often use can or be able to with verbs of perception:

I can hear him but I cannot see him.

I am able to hear him but I am not able to see him.

1e) can v. be able to:

In most situations, be able to is more formal than can.

1f) could v. be able to:

I could leave.

I was able to leave.

Both examples say I had the opportunity or ability to leave, but could means I did not leave and was/were able to means I did leave.

When we talk about a real past action we use was/were able to and when we talk about a hypothetical course of action we us could.

1g) When we talk about a skill, could and was/were able to are interchangeable:

I could swim when I was four.

I was able to swim when I was four.

1h) Note that in conditional sentences also, could and be able to are interchangeable.

2) With questions:

Can I open the window?

Could I open the window?

Am I able to open the window?

In questions, can and could are requests, while be able to asks about ability.

See also:

Verb Index


Modal Necessity
281 - Modal Necessity

usage; questions.

1) 100% necessity:

You must leave straight away.

You have [got] to leave straight away.

must v. have [got] to

Generally, must shows what the speaker feels and it is the speaker's authority; have [got] to is when the speaker uses an external force which they cannot control:

doctor to patient:	You've got to stop smoking.

patient to themself:	I must stop smoking.

2) 0% necessity:

We don't have to pay to get in.

We have not got to see the boss after all.

We needn't stay late.

These have an element of being optional, i.e. we needn't stay late but we can if we want to.

3) obligation:

You ought to call your mother.

You should call your mother.

These show that calling your mother is the right thing to do. There is no real difference between ought to and should, but ought to is perhaps a little stronger.

4)We use needn't to show an action is optional - I can do it if I want to. We use mustn't to say an action is forbidden - I have no choice.

See also:

Verb Index


Modal Offers
282 - Modal Offers

To show degrees of offers, we can use modal verbs:

I will give you hand with that case.

Shall I give you a hand with that case?

Can I give you a hand with that case?

We use shall as let's but the person has a chance to refuse:

Shall we go to the cinema?

See also:

Verb Index


Modal Permission
283 - Modal Permission

To show degrees of permission, we can use modal verbs:

1) permission

You cannot leave yet.

You are not allowed to leave yet.

You may not leave yet.

You must not leave yet.

can is more friendly than may which is quite formal.

needn't v. mustn't

We use needn't to show an action is optional - I can do it if I want to. We use mustn't to say an action is forbidden - I have no choice.

2) giving orders:

You will not leave yet.

See also:

Verb Index


Modal Possibility
284 - Modal Possibility

To show degrees of possibility, we can use modal verbs:

1) imagining things:

That would be nice.

2) can v. may

It can get very tense in some of these meetings.

It may get very tense in some of these meetings.

To talk generally about something we use can, but talking about a specific set of something, we use may. In the first example the speaker makes a general comment about the meetings; in the second example the speaker is talking about a specific group of future meetings only.

3) logical certainty

He will be in Rome by now.

He must be in Rome by now.

4) degrees of possibility in the present and future

He could be upstairs.

He might be upstairs.

He may be upstairs.

could which is least sure.

may is almost the same as might though perhaps might is a little less sure.

5) to show something the speaker thinks is unlikely or impossible or illogical:

He couldn't have got lost.

He can't have got lost.

It can't be raining!

He wouldn't still be at work, would he?

6) prediction:

She might win.

She will win.

She may win.

She could win.

will is certain.

7) suggestions in the future:

We could go to the cinema.

See also:

Verb Index


Modal Requests
285 - Modal Requests

To show degrees of requests, we can use modal verbs:

1) polite requests

Can I see you in your office, please?

Could I see you in your office, please?

May I see you in your office, please?

could is more polite than can.

2) we can use will to make requests, but it is more direct than can or could:

Would you tell me the time, please?

Could you tell me the time, please?

Can you tell me the time, please?

Will you tell me the time, please?

3) making requests:

Would you mind coming with me?

Would you mind if I left now?

Would you rather I left now?

See also:

Verb Index


Modal Verbs
279 - Modal Verbs

form; gerund; participle; phrases; use

1) There are not many modal verbs: can, could, dare, may, might, must, need, shall, should, will, would. There are also modal constructions: be able to, ought to, be allowed to

They always come first in a verb formation, before other auxiliaries and the main verb:

{modal} + [auxiliary] + {main verb}

Note that modal verbs do not take a final -s for the third person singular. The verb which follows is always in the infinitive form:

He might be...

They should stay...

She could have...

2) We can use them with the gerund to show continuous modality:

{modal} + {be} + {gerund}

He might be working late.

The should be coming soon.

He must be having a party.

3) We can use them with the past participle to show past modality:

{modal} + {have} + {past participle}

He might have been working late.

The should have seen him.

He must have gone away.

4) We can use be able to, be allowed to and have [got] to after modals:

{modal} + {phrase}

I will be able to...

She might not be allowed to...

They should have to...

Note that we do not use these in continuous forms.

5) We use modal verbs to show:

5a) what we think or feel about a situation:

They should not have gone.

They might have been working hard.

5b) ability to do something:

They can't speak fluently.

He could beat the record easily.

5c) necessity:

He must stop.

They should stop.

5d) possibility:

He could be there.

They might not win.

See also:

Verb Index


Past Continuous #2
269 - Past Continuous #2

form; use; sentence patterns

1) We make the past continuous by using the past form of be and the present participle:

{subject} + {was/were} + {present participle} ...

I was walking down the street...

He was singing...

They were talking when...

2) We use the past continuous for three situations:

2a) to provide the background for the story. It tells us what is happening before the main action occurs:

We were all talking when the boss walked in.

In this example, we started talking before the boss came in. We talked for some time and then the door opened and the main action happened - the boss came in and got angry because we were not working. Here the past continuous tells us about an action that was interrupted.

2b) to talk about a temporary and continuous action in the past:

I was working at home all last week.

The factory was turning out thousands of uniforms during the war.

2c) for arrangements in the past:

They were leaving on the six o'clock train.

Of course he was nervous, he was flying to the moon the next morning.

3) We often use these sentence patterns with the past continuous:

{past continuous} + {when} + {past simple}

{past simple} + {when/while} + {past continuous}

I was sleeping when the alarm clock woke me up.

The alarm clock woke me up when/while I was sleeping.

See also:

Verb Index


Past Perfect Simple #2
271 - Past Perfect Simple #2

form; use

1) We make the past perfect simple by using had and the past participle:

{subject} + {had} + {past participle}

I had seen the film six times already and I didn't want to see it again.

She had been to the dentist earlier in the day so she felt ill that night.

We often use the tense in conjunction with the past simple.

2) We use the past perfect simple tense:

2a) to provide the background to an event; it tells us what happened before the main action:

She was tired because she had been at work all day.

2b) to provide information about the order of events:

The detective ran into the room but the evil gangsters had already gone.

2c) when we want to provide a simple sequence of events, we can use the past simple or the past perfect with the past simple:

The King died. The Queen died three days later.

The Queen died three days after the King had died.

See also:

Verb Index


Past Simple #2
267 - Past Simple #2

form; use

1) We make the past simple tense by using the past form of the verb:

{subject} + {past form} ...

I worked very hard last week.

I rode to work on my bike this morning.

With regular verbs the past is formed by adding -ed to the end of the verb.

2) We use the past simple:

2a) when we talk about an action or event which started in the past and finished in the past.

I drank two cups of coffee for breakfast this morning.

The Big Bang happened over ten thousand million years ago.

It does not matter when the event or action happened; it can be one minute ago or a million years ago. We often use it with a past adverb.

2b) to make polite requests and suggestions:

I wondered if you might like to go out tonight?

I hoped you would say yes.

See also:

Verb Index


Present Continuous #2
265 - Present Continuous #2

form; use

1) We make the present simple by using a form of the verb be and the present participle form of the verb:

{subject} + {be} + {present participle} ...

I am working now.

She is talking to her friend.

They are running for the bus.

2) We use the present continuous tense in three ways:

2a) when we talk about a situation that is happening right now as we speak.

I am listening to some music right now.

Why is he in bed? - He is not feeling well today.

What's that noise? Are those cats fighting again?

2b) about things happening around now but maybe not right at the moment we speak. This is a temporary situation:

I am getting divorced.

The baby is not sleeping well these days so I can't sleep at night.

Are the team playing well this season?

Remember that these are temporary situations:

At this moment I am talking to you; but these days we are painting the house; we will finish this job soon.

2c) we also use this tense to talk about fixed future plans - it is a good idea to imagine that these are plans you can write in your diary. Often we add a time adverb:

I am going to Spain next year.

Sheila is not marrying Pete till next month.

Are they playing Arsenal next week?

See also:

Verb Index


Present Perfect Continuous #2
274 - Present Perfect Continuous #2

form; use

1) We make the present perfect continuous by using have/has been and the present participle form of the verb:

{subject} + {have/has} + {been} + {present participle} ...

I have been working ...

She has been doing her homework.

2) We use the present perfect continuous in two ways.

2a) to talk about an even which started in the past and is continuing now:

I have been learning English for six years.

They have been living in Paris since July.

We often use the words for and since with this tense.

2b) to talk about an event which lasted for some time and recently finished; the effects of this event are still apparent:

Why are you puffing? - I have been running.

I have been painting the house this weekend.

See also:

Verb Index


Present Perfect Simple #2
276 - Present Perfect Simple #2

form; use; patterns; been & gone; just.

1) We make the present perfect simple by using have/has and the past participle:

{subject} + {have} + {past participle} ...

I have seen this film.

She has gone to the dentist.

We do not use this tense with an adverb telling us when the event happened:

I have argued with my boss yesterday.

I have seen you last week.

2) We use the present perfect simple tense in several ways:

2a) from the past to the present; an event started in the past and continues till now, possibly carrying on into the future:

I have lived here all my life.

She has known me for five years.

2b) recent events, strongly affecting the present:

I have lost my wallet - quickly, call the police.

I have found it!

This last example affects the present because everyone else can stop looking.

2c) headline news:

A train has crashed, killing 40 people.

Three men have climbed Mount Everest.

2d) general experiences in life:

I have never seen such a fantastic sight.

Have you ever been to France?

2e) with actions we are expecting to happen; we often use this with yet:

Have you seen Bill yet?

He hasn't gone yet.

3) Often we will continue with the past simple so we can specify the time when an event happened:

{present perfect} + {past simple}

My boss has just gone. She left five minutes ago.

4) The verb go is used with two past participles, gone and been:

They have gone to Paris.

They have been to Paris.

In the first example they are not here now; in the second they went and then returned.

5) We often use the present perfect with recently, lately and just to talk about something done very recently.

{have/has} + {recently/just/lately} + {past participle}

{have/has} + {past participle} ... {recently/lately}

I have just seen Bill.

They have recently got divorced.

I have been talking to John lately.

See also:

Verb Index


Present Simple #2
263 - Present Simple #2

form; use

1) We make the present simple by using the present form of the verb. With most verbs this is the same as the infinitive form. Remember that the third person singular adds -s to the end:

{subject} + {present form}

I work...

She wishes...

It barks...

2) We use the present simple in 7 main ways:

2a) talking about habits and routines; things we do regularly:

I go to the cinema at least once a week.

We do not wake up before 8 o'clock in the morning.

Do the children go to bed at nine o'clock every night?

2b) talking about a situation that lasts for a long time:

He draws maps for a living.

She is not married.

Does she work in the wool factory?

2c) talking about a situation which is permanent:

Venus and Mercury are closer to the Sun than the Earth.

Metal does not float in water.

Do all mammals breathe oxygen?

2d) talking about feelings, thoughts and characteristics:

I believe in Father Christmas.

She doesn't like you.

How does it smell?

2e) giving instructions:

You walk out the door and then you turn left.

You don't do it like this, you do it like that!

Note: we more often use the imperative in this situation.

2f) talking about a future timetabled arrangement:

She leaves tomorrow.

It starts next Thursday.

We often use this with a time adverb.

2g) to tell a dramatic story, a joke or give a commentary:

This man is in a hospital bed. The doctor walks in and says "There's some good news and some bad news."

"Give me the bad news," says the man.

"We've had to cut of both your legs," says the doctor.

The man screams a bit and gets upset but after a while the doctor calms him down.

"What's the good news?" he asks the doctor.

"The man in the next bed wants to buy your shoes."

See also:

Verb Index


Past Continuous #1
268 - Past Continuous #1

We most often use the past continuous to make descriptions in the past, to set the scene':

It was raining when I went home. The phone was ringing when I walked into my house. I picked it up and someone was screaming on the other end of the line...

We make the past continuous by using was/were and the -ing form of the verb:

{subject} + {was/were} + {present participle}

I was working when you called.

You were working when I called.

See also:

Verb Index

Past Continuous #2


Past Perfect Continuous #1
272 - Past Perfect Continuous #1

We use the past perfect continuous to talk about a continuous temporary event which started happening in the past before another past event:

I had been learning English for six years before I went to England.

They had both been living in Paris for some time when they met.

We make the past perfect continuous by using had, been and the -ing form of the verb (the present participle):

{subject} + {had} + {been} + {present participle}

I had been working for some time before I realised my mistake.

Before I arrived, she had been doing her homework.

See also:

Verb Index


Past Perfect Simple #1
270 - Past Perfect Simple #1

The past perfect simple is used to talk about a past time before another time in the past.

We did not all passed the exam though we had studied hard.

The Queen died of a broken heart after the King had left her.

We make the past perfect simple by using had and the -ed form of the verb (the past participle):

{subject} + {had} + {past participle}

I had worked hard for a long time before I completed the work.

She had attended many interviews before she found the right job.

See also:

Verb Index

Past Perfect Simple #2


Past Simple #1
266 - Past Simple #1

We often use the past simple to tell a story. We use this tense a lot.

He walked into the room and looked around. There was a knock on the door. He opened it and saw...

We make the past tense of regular verbs by adding -ed to the end. There is no change for the third person singular:

{subject} + {past form}

I worked hard.

She walked to the supermarket.

They laughed at the joke.

See also:

Verb Index

Past Simple#2


Present Continuous #1
264 - Present Continuous #1

We use the present continuous tense to talk about actions which are happening as we speak and actions taking place around now:

Someone is ringing the door bell.

She is working in the library.

Can you be quiet, please. I am watching television.

We make the present continuous by using be and the -ing form of the verb:

{subject} + {be} + {present participle}

I'm working.

You're bleeding!

It's raining.

They're talking.

See also:

Verb Index

Present Continuous #2


Present Perfect Continuous #1
273 - Present Perfect Continuous #1

We use the present perfect continuous to talk about an even which started in the past and is continuing now:

I have been learning English for six years.

They have been living in Paris for the last eight months.

We make the present perfect continuous by using have/has, been and the -ing form of the verb (the present participle):

{subject} + {have/has} + {been} + {present participle}

I have been working...

She has been doing her homework.

See also:

Verb Index

Present Perfect Continuous #2


Present Perfect Continuous or Present Perfect Simple?
278 - Present Perfect Continuous or Present Perfect Simple?

Both tenses are used for an action which finished a short while ago. The simple tense tells us the action is completed and the result can be seen, the continuous that the action went on for some time.

I've been reading War & Peace and I have almost finished it.

I've read War & Peace but I found the end boring.

See also:

Verb Index

Present Perfect Continuous #1

Present Perfect Simple #1


Present Perfect Simple #1
275 - Present Perfect Simple #1

The present perfect simple tense is used to talk about a past time which has very strong meaning for the present.

The President has just been shot; the police are looking for the assassin.

Where's Jane? - She has gone out; if you run you can catch her.

We make the present perfect simple by using have/has and the -ed form of the verb (the past participle):

{subject} + {have/has} + {past participle}

I have worked hard today and now I'm tired.

She has found a good job and she will start work next Monday.

See also:

Verb Index

Present Perfect Simple #2


Present Perfect Simple or Past Simple?
277 - Present Perfect Simple or Past Simple?

The past simple is used for a completed action in the past; the present perfect has a much closer link to the present.

Napoleon fought many battles.

The American army has fought many battles.

In the second example, we can assume that the American army will continue to fight. They have not stopped completely yet.

See also:

Verb Index

Present Perfect Simple #1

Past Simple #1


Present Simple #1
262 - Present Simple #1

We use the present simple to talk about our habits and routines (things we do regularly) and situations which last for a long time:

I visit my mother once a month.

She works for a bank.

The Earth is spherical.

We use the present form of the verb. Remember to use the final -s with the third person:

{subject} + {present form}

I live in Scotland.

He plays football at the weekend.

They go out every night.

See also:

Verb Index

Present Simple #2


Auxiliary Verbs
287 - Auxiliary Verbs

overview; making different tenses; making negatives; making questions; lexical verbs.

1) There are three auxiliary verbs: be, have and do. We put them before the main verb to make different tenses, negatives and questions. We can use one or more auxiliary verbs together.

2) Different tenses are made thus:

{auxiliary} + [auxiliary] + {main verb}

She has been waiting for three hours.

We had talked for over an hour.

The only tenses where we do not use an auxiliary verb are the present simple and the past simple.

3) Negatives are made thus:

{auxiliary} + {not} + [auxiliary] + {main verb}

They have not been to Hollywood yet.

He is not living here anymore.

4) To make questions:

{auxiliary} + {} + [auxiliary] + {verb}

Do you want a cup of tea?

Has he been watching television?

5) We also use be, do and have as lexical verbs:

I am English.

She did it!

They have thirteen cats in their house.

See also:

Verb Index

be

do

have


Verb + Preposition
261 - Verb + Preposition

When we use a preposition, we can follow it with the gerund:

{verb phrase} + {preposition} + {gerund}

He coughed before beginning to speak.

They succeeded in breaking the door down.

With most prepositions this is no problem. However, when we use the preposition to, students often confuse it with the to + infinitive structure.

I object to work.

I object to work at night.

In the first example, work is a noun and to a preposition; in the second example, work is a verb.

If you do not know whether to is with the infinitive or gerund, try putting a noun after it:

I object to bananas.

This is acceptable so to is a preposition and must be followed by the gerund.

I object to working at night.

In the following case, to is not a preposition so we do not follow it with the gerund:

I expect to...

I expect to bananas.

I expect to eat bananas for breakfast.

See also:

Verb Index


Verb Forms
255 - Verb Forms

infinitive & present form; 3rd person; participles & gerund; past form; past participle

1) The infinitive is the base form of the verb. These are infinitives:

be, have, go, walk

In English, the infinitive is nearly always the same as the present tense. The only exception is the verb be:

I am, I have, I go, I walk

Note that some grammars regard the infinitive as to + base form; in this grammar guide the infinitive is without the to.

2) When we use he, she or it in the present tense, regular verbs add -s to the end. This is the third person singular:

I have	she has
I go	he goes
I walk	it walks

3) We make the present participle of regular verbs by adding -ing to the end of the infinitive:

be	being
have	having
go	going
walk	walking

The gerund has the same form as the present participle. Both the present participle and the gerund are known as the -ing form.

4) When we talk about the past, we use the past form of the verb (this does not change for the third person singular). To make the past form with regular verbs, we add -ed:

today	yesterday	past participle
I walk	I walked	walked
I cry	I cried	cried

In regular (and many irregular) verbs, the past participle is the same as the past form.

See also:

Verb Index


Verb Patterns

We use different patterns when we join two verbs. These are some of the more common patterns:

1) {verb} + {to} + {infinitive}

I managed to leave.

If you happen to see them, say hello' for me.

Verbs include: afford, agree, appear, arrange, ask, attempt, be, bear, beg, begin, care, choose, consent, dare, decide, determine, expect, fail, forget, happen, hate, have, help, hesitate, hope, intend, learn, like, love, manage, mean, need, neglect, offer, ought, plan, prefer, prepare, pretend, promise, propose, refuse, regret, remember, seem, start, swear, threaten, trouble, try, used, want, wish.

2) {verb} + [object] + {to} + {infinitive}

I would advise you to go.

I want you to leave.

Verbs include: advise, allow, ask, bear, beg, cause, command, compel, encourage, expect, forbid, force, get, hate, help, instruct, intend, invite, leave, like, mean, need, oblige, order, permit, persuade, prefer, press, promise, recommend, request, remind, teach, tell, tempt, trouble, want, warn, wish.

3) {verb} + [object] + {infinitive}

I could feel him watch me.

I made them go.

In the passive, we use the to + infinitive pattern:

He was made to feel unwelcome.

They were seen to enter the building after dark.

In this group we include most (but not all) of the modal auxiliary verbs and verbs of senses. Verbs include: could, feel, hear, help, let, make, may, might, must, notice, see, shall, should, watch, will, would.

4) {verb} + {gerund}

I considered retiring.

I enjoy running first thing in the morning.

Verbs include: admit, advise, appreciate, avoid, can't help, can't stand, consider, contemplate, delay, deny, detest, dislike, endure, enjoy, escape, excuse, face, feel like, finish, forgive, give up, go on, imagine, involve, keep, leave off, mention, mind, miss, postpone, practise, prefer, put off, resent, resist, risk, stop, suggest, understand.

5) Some verbs can take either the gerund or the infinitive. There is very little difference between these two:

I like skiing.

I like to ski.

In general, the gerund refers to a general activity while the infinitive refers to a specific case.

There are some important exceptions though:

Remember to visit my mother.

Remember visiting my mother.

In this case, the gerund refers to what happened before the main verb and the infinitive what happened after the main verb.

Remember visiting my mother = you visited her in the past and now I am asking you to remember it.

Remember to visit my mother = you must remember now that you will visit my mother in a while.

Verbs in this category include: advise, allow, attempt, begin, can't bear, continue, forbid, forget, go on, hate, hear, intend, like, love, permit, prefer, propose, regret, remember, see, start, stop, try, watch.

See also:

Verb Index


Verb Phrases
253 - Verb Phrases

A verb phrase is a group of words which can replace a verb in a sentence.

All these sentences follow the same pattern:

{noun phrase} + {verb phrase} + {noun phrase}

The elephant	ate	the cake.
The elephant	was eating	the cake.
The elephant	had already eaten	the cake.
The elephant	would have eaten	the cake.
The elephant	should have been eating	the cake.

We can make a verb phrase like this:

[auxiliary/modal verb] + [auxiliary verb] + [auxiliary verb] + {main verb}

See also:

Verb Index


Verbs
251 - Verbs

When we want to say what the subject of a sentence does, we use a verb. Verbs tell us about an action. Here are some simple verbs:

run, walk, read, talk

1) When we use verbs, we can change their tense and form to change the meaning:

I work; She works; I worked; I have worked; I am working

This change tells us when something happens (past, present, future).

2) To make some tense changes, we use different forms of the verb:

I was working.

I worked.

I work.

3) Some verbs are continuous, and some are simple; they have the same time reference but have different meanings:

I was working yesterday.

I worked yesterday.

4) We can also use modal verbs to tell us about how we feel about something happening:

You should see a doctor.

It must rain soon.

5) Some verbs always go with the same preposition:

I succeeded in passing my driving test.

She listened to the radio last night.

6) When we join two verbs to make a verb phrase, we use certain patterns:

I want to go.

I must go.

See also:

Verb Index


Irregular Verbs
256 - Irregular Verbs

Most verbs are regular; this is a list of the irregular verbs in English (those in bold type are common irregular verbs):

infinitive	past	past participle
arise	arose	arisen
awake	awoke	awoken
be	was	been
bear	bore	borne
beat	beat	beaten
become	became	become
befall	befell	befallen
beget	begot	begotten
begin	began	begun
behold	beheld	beheld
bend	bent	bent
bereave	bereft - bereaved	bereft - bereaved
beseech	besought	besought
bestride	bestride	bestride
bet	bet	bet
bid	bid	bid
bind	bound	bound
bite	bit	bitten
bleed	bled	bled
blow	blew	blown
break	broke	broken
breed	bred	bred
bring	brought	brought
broadcast	broadcast	broadcast
build	built	built
burn	burnt	burnt
burst	burst	burst
buy	bought	bought
can	see: can
cast	cast	cast
catch	caught	caught
chide	chid	chid
choose	chose	chosen
cleave	cleft - clove	cleft - clove
cling	clung	clung
come	came	come
cost	cost	cost
creep	crept	crept
cut	cut	cut
deal	dealt	dealt
dig	dug	dug
do	did	done
draw	drew	drawn
dream	dreamt	dreamt
drink	drank	drunk
drive	drove	driven
dwell	dwelt	dwelt
eat	ate	eaten
fall	fell	fallen
feed	fed	fed
feel	felt	felt
fight	fought	fought
find	found	found
fling	flung	flung
fly	flew	flown
forbear	forbore	forborne
forbid	forbade	forbidden
forecast	forecast	forecast
forget	forgot	forgotten
forgive	forgave	forgiven
forsake	forsook	forsaken
freeze	froze	frozen
get	got	got
give	gave	given
go	went	gone
grind	ground	ground
grow	grew	grown
hang	hung - hanged	hung - hanged
have	had	had
hear	heard	heard
hew	hewed	hewn - hewed
hide	hid	hidden
hit	hit	hit
hold	held	held
hurt	hurt	hurt
keep	kept	kept
kneel	knelt	knelt
knit	knit	knit
know	knew	known
lead	led	led
lean	leant	leant
leap	leapt	leapt
learn	learnt	learnt
leave	left	left
lend	lent	lent
let	let	let
lie	lay	lain
light	lit - lighted	lit - lighted
lose	lost	lost
make	made	made
may	see: may
mean	meant	meant
meet	met	met
mislead	misled	misled
mistake	mistook	mistaken
misunderstand	misunderstood	misunderstood
mow	mowed	mown - mowed
outdo	outdid	outdone
outgrow	outgrew	outgrown
overbid	overbid	overbid
overcome	overcame	overcome
overdo	overdid	overdone
overfeed	overfed	overfed
override	overrode	overridden
overrun	overran	overrun
overtake	overtook	overtaken
pay	paid	paid
put	put	put
quit	quit	quit
read	read	read
rend	rent	rent
rewind	rewound	rewound
rid	rid	rid
ride	rode	ridden
ring	rang	rung
rise	rose	risen
run	ran	run
saw	sawed	sawn - sawed
say	said	said
see	saw	seen
seek	sought	sought
sell	sold	sold
send	sent	sent
set	set	set
sew	sewed	sewn - sewed
shake	shook	shaken
shall	see: shall
shear	sheared	shorn - sheared
shed	shed	shed
shine	shone	shone
shit	shit - shat	shit - shat
shoot	shot	shot
show	showed	shown - showed
shrink	shrank	shrunk
shut	shut	shut
sing	sang	sung
sink	sank	sunk
sit	sat	sat
slay	slew	slain
sleep	slept	slept
slide	slid	slid
sling	slung	slung
slink	slunk	slunk
slit	slit	slit
smell	smelt	smelt
smite	smote	smitten
sow	sowed	sown - sowed
speak	spoke	spoken
speed	sped	sped
spell	spelt	spelt
spend	spent	spent
spill	spilt	spilt
spin	span	spun
spit	spat	spat
split	split	split
spoil	spoilt	spoilt
spread	spread	spread
spring	sprang	sprung
stand	stood	stood
steal	stole	stolen
stick	stuck	stuck
sting	stung	stung
stink	stank	stunk
strew	strewed	strewn - strewed
stride	strode	strode
strike	struck	struck
string	strung	strung
strive	strove	striven
swear	swore	sworn
sweat	sweat	sweat
sweep	swept	swept
swell	swelled	swollen - swelled
swim	swam	swum
swing	swung	swung
take	took	taken
teach	taught	taught
tear	tore	torn
tell	told	told
think	thought	thought
thrive	throve	thrived
throw	threw	thrown
thrust	thrust	thrust
tread	trod	trodden
unbend	unbent	unbent
unbind	unbound	unbound
underbid	underbid	underbid
undergo	underwent	undergone
understand	understood	understood
undertake	undertook	undertaken
undo	undid	undone
unwind	unwound	unwound
uphold	upheld	upheld
upset	upset	upset
wake	woke	woken
wear	wore	worn
weave	wove	woven
wed	wed	wed
weep	wept	wept
wet	wet	wet
will	see: will
win	won	won
wind	wound	wound
withdraw	withdrew	withdrawn
withhold	withheld	withheld
withstand	withstood	withstood
wring	wrung	wrung
write	wrote	written
See also:

Verb Index


Future
257 - Future

We have different ways to talk about the future in English.

Sometimes we use the present continuous tense to talk about the future:

I am seeing her tomorrow.

See: Present Continuous #1

When we talk about intentions or predictions based on what we can see now, we use be going to:

I am going to pass my test, I'm sure of that!

See: be going to

When we make predictions and promises, we use will:

It will rain, you wait and see.

See: will

Sometimes it is difficult to choose between be going to and will:

It will be fine tomorrow.

It is going to be fine, tomorrow.

See: be going to - will

When we make promises and offers for the future, sometimes we use shall:

You shall go to the ball, Cinderella.

See: Shall

See also:

Verb Index


Imperatives
258 - Imperatives

use; form; imperative as subject; double imperatives.

1) We use the imperative form of the verb:

1a) to give orders:

Stop!

Shut the door!

1b) to give instructions:

Add a pinch of salt and boil for fifteen minutes.

Go out the door and turn left.

1c) to make informal offers or invitations:

Have a drink?

Want a ride?

1d) to give warnings:

Don't take lifts from strangers.

Do try to take care!

2) The form of the imperative is the same as the infinitive.

To be polite, we add please to the end of the sentence:

Shut the door, please.

To tell someone we want something very much, we put please or do at the beginning:

Do tell me!

Please tell me!

3) We can use the imperative as a subject of a sentence. We often follow it with and:

{imperative} + {and} + {clause}

Get this done and you can leave early.

Complain again and we will leave.

4) Some imperatives are joined by and:

Come and sit here!

Wait and see.

In AmE, go can be followed by the imperative without and:

Go get him.

Go wait in the car.

5) We can also join two imperatives:

Be sure to do this...

Be sure and do this...

See also:

Verb Index


Infinitives
259 - Infinitives

The infinitive is the base form of the verb:

be, have, walk...

We use the infinitive with to to express reason:

{to} + {infinitive}

To pay for the mortgage, he took a second job.

A common question and answer expressing purpose is like this:

statement:	I'm packing now.

Question:	What for?

Answer:	To save time later.

See also:

Verb Index


Phrasal Verbs
260 - Phrasal Verbs

overview; form; objects; three-part phrasal verbs.

1) In modern English there are many words which have a Latin origin. A lot of these are verbs, for example:

maintain - manu tenere

tolerate - tolerare

succeed - succedere

For many Latin based verbs, there are also English phrasal verbs. These are verbs + prepositions:

maintain = keep up

tolerate = put up with

succeed = come off

There are many phrasal verbs. They are used in everyday speech and informal writing. Latin based verbs are more scientific and formal.

2) Phrasal verbs consist of a verb followed by a preposition or adverb:

{verb} + {preposition/adverb}

run into

look after

pull off

3) The meaning of a phrasal verb is very different from the meaning of the two words taken together:

go = leave

off = from

but

go off = become bad, mouldy

4) The same phrasal verb can also have several very different meanings:

take off = remove

take off = imitate

take off = leave the ground

5) Some phrasal verbs can stand alone or be followed by a direct object:

{phrasal verb} + [direct object]

She took off her coat.

The plane took off.

When a phrasal verb takes a direct object, the two parts of the verb can usually be separated; the adverb or preposition can be put before or after the object:

She took her coat off.

She took off her coat.

But if the object is a pronoun, it must break the phrasal verb in two:

She took it off.

She took off it.

6) Some phrasal verbs consist of three parts:

{verb} + {adverb} + {preposition}

She did away with her husband.

You must not go back on your promise.

Three part phrasal verbs are not split.

See also:

Verb Index


shall
402 - shall

We use shall as a modal verb. It is used in several different ways:

1) a formal future alternative to will in first person singular and plurals:

I shall leave tomorrow.

We shall never be defeated!

2) a formal promise:

You shall go to the ball, Cinderella.

3) making offers & suggestions for first person singular and plural:

Shall I make some tea?

Shall we take my car?

but:

Will you drive or shall I?

4) to get ideas from other people:

What shall we do now?

Where shall we meet?

5) The short form of the negative is shan't:

I shall never leave you!

I shan't ever leave you!

See also:

Modal Verbs


should
403 - should

We use should as a modal verb. It is used in several different ways:

1) obligation:

We should always love our neighbours.

2) advice:

You should give up smoking.

3) in conditionals.

If I should be late, call the police.

See also:

Modal Verbs


so that
404 - so that

When we join two clauses the first event (main-clause) must happen to allow the second event (sub-clause) to happen:

{first event} + {so that + second event}

The second clause often has this format:

{so that} + {subject} + {could/would/will/can/needn't...} ...

He had to make other financial sacrifices so that he could pay for the car.

See also:

Conjunctions


so, therefore, consequently
405 - so, therefore, consequently

When we join two clauses the second event (sub-clause) is the result of the first event (main clause):

{first event} + {so/therefore/consequently + second event}

He arrived late so/therefore/consequently we missed the start of the show.

See also:

Conjunctions


so, too, neither, nor, either
406 - so, too, neither, nor, either

When we make a positive addition to a statement, we use:

{so} + {modal/Auxiliary} + {subject}

{subject} + {modal/auxiliary} + {too}

I like swimming.

- So do I.

- I do, too.

With negative statements:

{neither/nor} + {modal/aux} + {subject}

{subject} + {modal/aux} + {not} + {either}

I don't like X.

- Neither do I.

- Nor do I.

- I don't either.

We can also replace an entire clause with so:

I think he must have gone on ahead.

- I think so (too).

Or so or not in negative forms after think, suppose, expect, imagine:

I think he must have gone on ahead.

- I don't think so.

- I think not.


some more
407 - some more

We use some more to mean an extra amount of non-countable noun. When someone first arrives we ask:

Would you like some tea?

And after they have drunk a cup, we ask:

Would you like some more tea?

For countable nouns, we use another.


some, any
408 - some, any

When we want to talk about a number of objects, but we do not know exactly how many, we use some as a determiner:

There are some people here, perhaps twenty or thirty.

There is some furniture upstairs, I don't know exactly what is there, though.

We usually use some when we talk about plural nouns and non-countable nouns. For singular nouns, we use a/an:

I have a new car.

There have been some developments recently in the motor industry.

I need to buy some petrol.

We can also use some as a pronoun:

Have you got any money? - Yes, here's some.

If we use some with another determiner, it follows this pattern:

{some} + {of} + {determiner} ...

I've seen some of those new cars you were talking about.

Some of the people here are ugly!

Something, somebody, someone and somewhere are used in the same way as some; they are all singular:

There is something under the bed.

There is somebody in the kitchen.

Somewhere out there is someone for me.

If the statement is positive we use some

If the statement is negative, we use any or no instead of some:

{verb} + {no}

{verb} + {not} + {any}

There aren't any people here; where is everyone?

There are no people here; where is everyone?

There isn't any furniture upstairs; it's empty.

There is no furniture upstairs; it's empty.

When we make questions, we usually use any:

Are there any people here?

Is there any furniture upstairs?

We normally use some to make a statement, but we use any if the statement has a negative meaning:

Hurry! There is hardly any time left.

No one is allowed to touch any of my records.

We normally use any to make a question, but if we expect the answer to be yes, then we use some:

Can I have some water, please? - Yes, of course.

Will you pass me some pieces of paper, please? - Yes, certainly.

And if we use an if-clause, we can use either some or any:

If you want any/some money, you'll have to earn it.

If there is any/some left, I'll have it.

We can also use some and any as pronouns. When we use no, it becomes none as a pronoun:

Can you lend me some money? I haven't got any.

I've got some.


still & yet
409 - still & yet

We use yet to talk about something which has not happened but which we are waiting for and expecting soon. It is generally used in questions and negatives and comes at the end of the sentence:

Haven't they arrived yet?

He hasn't phoned yet.

We use still to talk about something which is going on longer than expected. It follows the is in mid-position in statements and questions, and after the subject in negatives:

He is still on the phone!

Are they still quarrelling?

I still haven't heard from him.


the first time
410 - the first time

We use this phrase to talk about something never done before:

I have never seen Paris; this is the first time I have ever been here.

We often use this phrase with the present perfect:

{it is the first time} + [that] + {subject} + {present perfect} ...

It is the first time [that] I have [ever] done this.


the last time
411 - the last time

We use this phrase to talk about the most recent occasion when something happened. We often use it with the present perfect:

{the last time} ... {was} + [in] + {date}

{subject} + {present perfect} + {since} + {date}

{subject} + {present perfect} + {for} + {time}

The last time it rained was 1976.

It hasn't rained since 1976.

It hasn't rained for X years.


there is & there are
412 - there is & there are

We often use there is or there are to describe places and talk about the existence of something.

There is tells us about singular nouns and non-countable nouns:

There is a man in the street.

There is a lot of wine left in the bottle.

There are tells us about plural nouns:

There are a lot of good films on the television this weekend.

We most often use is/are, but we can also use all forms of be:

There were many people around.

There have been a lot of casualties.

Be prepared - there might be some trouble.


they
413 - they

To talk about a group of people whose identity is unimportant

They're doing some work in the street.

To talk about the government & authority:

They are watching you.

We can use this to talk about general opinion:

They say...

People say...


try as I might
414 - try as I might

We use this phrase thus:

I tried very hard but could not succeed.

Try as I might, I could not succeed.


used to
415 - used to

We use used to in two different situations. The first talks about the present and something we are familiar with, the other about a past situation which no longer happens:

I am used to driving long distances.

I used to drive long distances.

This is used for situations in the present which we are familiar with; they cause us no problems:

{be} + {used to} + {noun phrase}

They are used to walking; they go walking in the mountains every year.

I was used to living on my own when I was young; I left home at sixteen.

Don't worry about the new job, you'll get used to it in no time.

This is used for situations and habits which were true in the past, but do not happen now:

{used to} + {infinitive}

I used to cry when I was a baby, but I don't now.

We use the present simple to talk about habits now; habits from the past which are no longer true use used to:

She smokes 20 cigarettes a day.

She smoked 20 cigarettes a day when she was twenty.

She used to smoke 20 cigarettes a day when she was twenty.

Past actions which only happened once use the past simple:

I used to cycle to school every day but once I took a taxi.

We can make the negative in two ways:

I didn't used to...

I used not to...

The first is more common.


when, as soon as
416 - when, as soon as

When we join two clauses, the second event (main clause) happens just after the first event (sub-clause):

{second event} + {when/as soon as + first event}

I will call you when he leaves.

We left as soon as we could.

See also:

Conjunctions


whereas, while
417 - whereas, while

When we join two clauses:

{main clause} + {whereas/while + sub-clause}

Jack could not eat fat whereas/while his wife could not eat lean meat.

See also:

Conjunctions


while
418 - while

When we join two clauses, the second event (main clause) happens at the same time as the first event (sub-clause):

{main clause} + {while + sub clause}

We played football while they sat on the beach.

See also:

Conjunctions


will
419 - will

We use will as a modal verb.

We use will in several different ways:

1) for certain predictions for the future, present and past in future:

Arsenal will lose again.

He will be on the plane by now.

2) for events that will be completed at a time in the future:

{will} + {have} + {past participle}

This time next month we will have been married ten years.

3) when we use it for prediction, we talk about events we cannot influence. We often use it for the distant future:

In the year 2500 mankind will rely entirely on machines.

4) {will} + {be} + {present participle}

We use this form to talk about fairly certain events in the future - it is almost the same as the present continuous used to talk about the future.

He will be leaving tomorrow at six.

We also use it to talk about continuous events in the future:

We will be lying on the beach next week.

5) to show intention:

You stay there, I'll do it.

I'll carry your bags if you like.

6) to ask for something:

Will you give me a hand?

What will I do?

7) to show refusal:

He won't come out of his room.

It will not work.

8) to make promises & threats:

I will always love you.

I will kill you!

9) making decisions on the spur of the moment:

Is that the phone? - I'll get it.

I think I'll have the roast beef.

10) to give orders:

You will do what I say.

You will be a good boy from now on.

11) to make invitations:

Will you sit down, please.

Won't you sit down, please.

In informal writing, we often we abbreviate the verb will with an apostrophe:

she will = she'll

The short form of the negative is won't:

I will not leave yet.

I won't leave yet.

No, I won't is usually considered impolite. A politer way of refusing is to say: I'm afraid I can't.

See also:

Modal Verbs


wish
420 - wish

use; form

1) We use wish as a formal word in place of want or would like:

I want to go home.

I would like to leave now.

I wish to depart soon.

We also use wish to say how we would like a situation to be different. It shows desire or regret.

I wish I were handsome.

I wish they would stop shouting.

I wish you had never come into my life.

2) The tense following wish is usually one tense behind the situation:

It is Tuesday; I wish it was Sunday again.

She left yesterday; I wish she had never left.

She has gone; I wish she had never gone.

We use wish...would when we are insistent:

I wish you would shut up!

We can use either was or were after wish:

I wish I was rich.

I wish I were rich.

If only is stronger than wish.


would
421 - would

We use would as a modal verb.

We use would in several different ways:

1) conditionals:

It would be better if you came.

If we had not lost, we would be champions now.

If I were you, I would leave straight away.

2) wishing:

I'd like to go to Mars.

I wish she would look in this direction.

3) + like to ask for something:

What would you like to do?

I would like some information, please.

4) the past tense of will:

I am late because the car would not start.

5) invitations:

Would you come with me, please?

Would you like some tea?

6) preferences

I'd rather have tea than coffee.

7) imagining things:

A holiday would be nice.

Wouldn't it be nice to get on with my neighbours.

In informal writing, we often we abbreviate the verb would with an apostrophe:

she would = she'd

We can use would as a polite form of will:

Would you tell them to come in, please?

We use would like as a polite form of want:

I want a cup of tea.

I would like a cup of tea, please.

It is also an invitation:

Would you like a cup of tea?

Would you like to go to the cinema?

The short form is d:

I'd like to know what is going on.

See also:

Modal Verbs


rather
422 - rather

We can use rather to show our preference:

I would rather you left.

I would like to go rather than stay and listen.

When we compare two alternatives, we use rather than:

{alternative 1} + {rather than} + {alternative 2}

She likes singing rather than dancing.

I want to go rather than [to] stay.

I want the red one rather than the blue one.

When we use rather as an alternative to prefer:

{would} + {rather} + {infinitive}

I would rather go.

When we show preference, the clause after rather is usually one tense behind the meaning (see wish for more on this):

I would rather you stopped smoking.

I would rather she hadn't driven over the cat.


Mr, Mrs, Miss, Ms & Madam
423 - Mr, Mrs, Miss, Ms & Madam

We use these titles before a person's name when we are talking to them or about them. They are used in formal or polite situations.

Title	Use
Mister or Mr	men
Mrs	married women
Miss	unmarried women/girls
Ms	women
Madam	women (very formal)

All these words come before the person's name:

Good morning, Mister Blake. How are you today?

Can I speak to Mrs Blake, please?

Will Miss Blake please come to reception?

Take this letter to Ms Blake's office.

Dear Madam, thank you for your letter...

When we talk about a married couple, we often say:

Mister and Mrs Smith...

We can also use Mr or Madam before the title of someone very important when we are talking to him:

But Madam President, this would mean war!

I wish to object, Mister Chairman.


much & not nearly
424 - much & not nearly

When there is a big difference between adjectives, we can use much and not nearly:

The Earth is much closer to the sun than Pluto.

Pluto isn't nearly as close to the sun as the Earth is.


much though
425 - much though

When we join two clauses the first situation (sub-clause) is true but this does not allow the second event (main clause) to happen:

{much though + first event} + {second event}

Much though I trust him, I don't want to lend him any money.


must

We use must in several different ways:

1) to give commands or strong advice:

You must never take lifts from strangers.

You must never hit a superior officer.

2) to show necessity:

We must go now.

You must put on your socks before your shoes.

3) to show logical certainty in general, the past and the present:

It must be awful to break one's leg in three places.

It must have been very tiring for you to drive so far.

He must be upstairs.

4) to show something which is not allowed:

You must not forget your homework.

You must not fight in the classroom.


need
427 - need

We use need as a modal verb to show when something is not necessary:

{need} + {not}

You needn't be so rude.

They needn't have come so early.

need is also a lexical verb showing necessity:

{need} + {to} + {infinitive}

I need to leave.


neither...nor
428 - neither...nor

When we join two clauses, this is used for negative sentences with two alternatives (clauses):

{either} + {clause} + {or} + {clause}

Neither King Charles nor his advisors knew what to do.


on the other hand
429 - on the other hand

When we join two clauses:

{main clause} + {sub-clause + on the other hand}

Jack could not eat fat, his wife could not eat lean meat on the other hand.

We often use this phrase to begin a contrasting paragraph; unlike while and whereas we do not use very often as a simple conjunction.


once
430 - once

When we join two clauses the first event (sub-clause) happens and then the second event (main clause) can happen:

{once + first event} + {second event}

Once the guests leave we can clear up.


one & ones
431 - one & ones

We use one and ones as pronouns to refer to one or more of a number of things:

Which record would you like?

I'd like this one, please.

Which sweets would you like?

I'd like some green ones, please.

We use them:

after an adjective in a noun phrase

after the

after every

after each but this is optional

after a demonstrative adjective, especially this and that

after which

it can replace a noun with a/an


only by, so long as
432 - only by, so long as

When we join two clauses the first event (sub-clause) needs to happen before the second event (main clause) will happen:

{only by/so long as + first event} + {second event}

We often use this pattern:

{only by} + {noun phrase} ... {inversion}

Only by continual study will you succeed.

So long as you study hard, you will succeed.


or
433 - or

When we join two clauses, this is used for positive sentences:

{clause} + [clause(s)] + {or} + {clause}

Take the left, the right or the middle course.


ought to & should
434 - ought to & should

We often use should and ought to to give advice:

You should stop drinking so much.

You ought to see a doctor about your problem.

{should} + {infinitive}

{ought} + {to} + {infinitive}

There is no big difference between should and ought to. However, ought to has a very slight meaning of outside influence, i.e. should is advice, ought to is common sense.

See also:

Modal Verbs


own
435 - own

We use own to stress ownership by one person:

This is my dog.

This is my own dog.


prevent
436 - prevent

When we do not allow something to happen, we prevent it from happening; we do not allow it to start.

{prevent} + {something/someone} + {from} + {doing something}

Rough seas prevented the ferry from leaving.

Strong bars prevented the prisoners from climbing out of the windows.


prefer
437 - prefer

We use prefer to show our preferences:

I would prefer to eat at home rather than go to a restaurant.

I would prefer eating at home to going to a restaurant.

When we talk generally, we tend to use:

{prefer} + {gerund}

When we are talking about a specific instance, we tend to use:

{prefer} + {to} + {infinitive}

Comparison

When we make comparisons with prefer:

{prefer} + {gerund} + {to} + {gerund}

I prefer driving to walking.

{prefer} + {to} + {infinitive} + {rather} + {than} + {gerund}

I prefer to drive rather than walking.

{prefer} + {to} + {infinitive} + [rather] + {than} + {infinitive}

I prefer to drive (rather) than walk.


pride
438 - pride

We use the word differently depending on whether it is an adjective, noun or verb:

I am proud of you.

I have pride in you.

She prides herself on her looks.

adjective:	{be} + {proud} + {of} + {something}

noun:	{have/take} + {pride} + {in} + {something}

verb:	{pride} + {reflexive pronoun} + {on} + {something}


probability
439 - probability

He probably missed the bus.

In all probability he missed the bus.

{subject} + {probably} + {verb...}

{in all probability} + {subject} + {verb...}


a little, quite, & nearly
440 - a little, quite, & nearly

When there is a small difference between adjectives, we can use a little, quiet and nearly:

The Earth is a little closer to the sun than Mars.

The Earth doesn't travel quite so close to the sun as Mars does.

Mars is nearly as close to the sun as the Earth is.


according to
441 - according to

When we join two clauses the first event (sub-clause) suggests why the second event (main clause) will happen:

{according to + first event} + {second event}

According to Proudhon, property is theft.


after
442 - after

When we join two clauses, the second event (main clause) happens any time after the first event (sub-clause):

{second event} + {after + first event}

They left after we did.


already
443 - already

We use already to talk about something which happens sooner than expected:

Is he already here? We weren't expecting him till later.

We use it mostly in positive statements and questions where it has a mid position; we can use it at the end of the sentence for emphasis:

I've told you once already! Now, go away!


although, though, even though
445 - although, though, even though

When we join two clauses the first event (sub-clause) happened to cause the second event (main clause) but the second event was not successful:

{although + first event} + {second event}

Although she gave a good interview, she did not get the job.


always
446 - always

We use always with the present continuous tense to show when something happens too often.

{be} + {always} + {present participle}

He is always asking me to lend him money and I'm getting fed up with it.

She is always complaining! I wish she would stop it!

Are they always fighting? - No, they aren't always arguing, either.


and, as well as, both...and, not only...but also
447 - and, as well as, both...and, not only...but also

When we join two clauses with both clauses working together:

{clause} + {and...} + {clause}

I arrived and the party began.


another
448 - another

We use another to mean one extra countable noun. When someone first arrives we ask:

Would you like a biscuit?

And after they have eaten it, we ask:

Would you like another biscuit?

For non-countable nouns, we use some more.


any longer & any more
449 - any longer & any more

We use any longer and any more to talk about something coming to an end.

We use them in negative statements where they come at the end:

He doesn't live here any longer.

He doesn't work there any more.


any, each & every
450 - any, each & every

We use every to talk about a group, each to talk about individuals in a group and any to talk about one single non-specific individual from a group:

Every one was there.

Each person was given a medal.

Any of them could be the culprit.

In the first example, every talks about the whole group together. In the second example, each talks about the individuals of a group. In the third example, any talks about one member of the group whose identity is unknown.

We tend to use any in negative sentences and questions.

We also use the same difference with compound words such as everyone, anybody, nothing, everywhere, anything, etc.


apologise
451 - apologise

When we say we are sorry for doing something, we apologise.

{apologise} + [to + someone] + {for} + {something}

I apologise for being rude to you.

We apologise for all the trouble we made.

They apologised to me for breaking my fence.

In the first example, being is the gerund, this is the -ing form of the verb which acts as a noun. We usually use apologise with the gerund.


as a result of
452 - as a result of

When we join two clauses the second event (main clause) is the result of the first event (sub-clause):

{as a result of + first event} + {second event}

As a result of the bad weather, he missed his connecting flight.

This conjunction usually comes in the front position.


as, since
453 - as, since

When we join two clauses the first event (sub-clause) causes the second event (main clause) to happen:

{since/as + first event} + {second event}

Since/as your usual teacher is away, I shall be teaching you today.

We usually put these conjunctions at the beginning of the sentence.


be
454 - be

overview; present & past; use; form; apostrophes

1) The verb be is very important. It is used as a lexical verb and an auxiliary verb. It is irregular and it is very useful to learn the different forms thoroughly.

2) The table shows the form of the verb be in the present and past:

	person	present	past
singular	I	am	was
singular	you	are	were
singular	he/she/it	is	was
plural	we/you/they	are	were

3) We use the verb be when we give information about the identity or qualities of a noun:

Eric is a marvellous swimmer.

They are good friends.

Was she here last night?

They weren't very happy with us.

4) The form is:

infinitive	be
present	am/are/is
present participle	being
gerund	being
past	was/were
past participle	been

5) In informal writing, we often we abbreviate the verb be with an apostrophe:

I am = I'm

you are = you're

he is = he's

I was not = I wasn't

You were not = you weren't

See also:

Verb Index


be able to
455 - be able to

We use be able to as a modal verb in several different ways:

1) to show ability or opportunity in the present:

We are able to use this room.

She is able to play the piano.

2) ability or opportunity in the past:

I was able to name every American state when I was at school.

She was able to play the piano very well when she was ten.

3) to show ability; we can use be able to with verbs of perception:

I am able to hear him but I am not able to see him.

See also:

Modal Verbs


be about to
4566 - be about to

We use this to talk about events in the very near future:

Sorry I can't stop, I'm about to go out.

He was about to step into the bath when the doorbell rang.


be allowed to
457 - be allowed to

We use be allowed to as a modal verb to show permission:

You are allowed to smoke.

We weren't allowed to smoke.


be going to
458 - be going to

be going to: form; use; going to go; questions; negatives

1) {subject} + {be going to} + {infinitive}

I am going to be a lawyer when I leave college.

She is going to be a star one day.

2) We use be going to:

2a) to talk about our future intentions:

I am going to make a cake.

He is going to start his own company soon.

2b) to talk about predictions which are based on what we see now.

Look at those clouds - I think it is going to rain this afternoon.

Arsenal are playing very badly - they are going to lose the match.

2c) to talk about past intentions or predictions:

I was going to call you earlier but I forgot.

I thought he was going to start his own company but I was wrong.

3) When the main verb in the sentence is go, we say:

I am going to go on holiday next week.

going to go is, however, not very elegant. Instead we often use:

I am going on holiday next week.

This is using the present continuous with a future meaning.

4) We make questions in this way:

{be} + {subject} + {going to} + {infinitive}

Are you going to help me or not?

Is she going to apply for that job?

5) We make negatives thus:

{subject} + {be} + {not} + {going to} + {infinitive}

He is going to win the game.

He isn't going to win the game.


be going to - will
459 - be going to - will

We use will to talk about things in the future we cannot control and decisions made at the moment we speak.

We use be going to to talk about our planned intentions and predictions based on what we can see now.

Note

The difference between these two forms is not very great and in everyday spoken English it is not that important.


be to
460 - be to

We use this tense to talk about official arrangements. It is formal:

The president is to visit Spain this week. There the two leaders are to meet and discuss the upcoming congress.


because, because of, as a result of, owing to, due to
461 - because, because of, as a result of, owing to, due to

When we join two clauses the first event (sub-clause) causes the second event (main clause) to happen:

{second event} + {because + first event}

The police came because someone had called them.

We can use this pattern also:

{second event} + {because of/as a result of/owing to/due to} + {noun phrase}

We came home late because of the traffic.


before
462 - before

When we join two clauses, the second event (main clause) happens before the first event (sub-clause):

{second event} + {before + first event}

I called you before I left the house.


by far
463 - by far

When we are talking about superlatives, we can use by far to show a big difference:

Saturn is by far the largest planet in the solar system.


by mistake & on purpose
464 - by mistake & on purpose

When we accidentally do something wrong, we can say:

{by} + {mistake}

{on} + {purpose}

I did it by mistake.

I didn't do it on purpose.


by myself & on my own
465 - by myself & on my own

These have the same meaning.


can
466 - can

We use can as a modal verb in several different ways to show:

1) ability and opportunity in the present:

I can drive.

Can you hear me?

2) permission:

You can borrow my car if you want.

We cannot allow you to behave in such a manner.

3) to show impossibility:

He can't have won!

You can't be serious!

4) to ask for or offer something:

Can you help me?

Can you open the window, please?

Can I give you a hand?

See also:

Modal Verbs


could
467 - could

We use could as a modal verb in several different ways:

1) to talk about ability in the past:

I could drive when I was fifteen.

Could you hear me properly?

2) to make requests:

Could you help me, please?

Could I have a light?

3) to talk about ability in the future:

Could you swim across this river?

Could you lift that weight?

4) to show possibility in the present & future:

He could be at work, but I'm not certain.

If I were rich, I could go the Bahamas for a holiday.

5) to make suggestions for the future:

We could have a party.

You could see your mother and then go out afterwards.

6) to ask politely for something:

Could you give me some help here?

Could you come here, please?

7) to show permission politely:

You could come on Thursday, if you like.

The boss said you couldn't leave early.

8) as the past tense of can:

I could run much faster when I was younger.

Women and children could work in the mines in the last century.

See also:

Modal Verbs


dare
468 - dare

We can use dare as a modal verb:

Dare you do something? - no I daren't!

They dared not go.

or as a lexical verb:

Do you dare to do something? - no I don't!

They did not dare to go.

We use dare mostly in questions and negatives.

See also:

Modal Verbs


do
469 - do

The verb do is very important. It is a lexical verb and an auxiliary verb. It is irregular and it is very useful to learn the different forms thoroughly.

The table shows the form of the verb do in the present and past:

	person	present	past
singular	I/you	do	did
singular	he/she/it	does	did
plural	we/you/they	do	did

We use the verb do:

1) to talk about an action when we do not know what it is or do not want to say what it is:

What did you do last night?

I have done something terrible!

2) meaning work at, finish:

He's doing marvels in the kitchen.

We've done a lot of work on the house.

See also:

Verb Index


either...or
470 - either...or

When we join two clauses, this is used for positive or negative sentences with two alternatives (clauses):

{either} + {clause} + {or} + {clause}

Either listen to what I'm saying or leave me alone.


either, neither
471 - either, neither

We use these to talk about two noun phrases.

either means on or the other:

It doesn't matter which one you chose; either will be fine.

neither has a negative meaning:

Accept neither offer; both of them are too low.

{either/neither} + {countable noun phrase}

{either/neither} + {of} + {non-countable noun phrase}

I don't like either of the records.

I don't like either jam.


enough
472 - enough

Think about this situation: There is a dinner party. There are ten guests but only nine chairs.

There aren't enough chairs.

enough means the amount you need or a sufficient amount.

{enough} + {noun}

{adjective/adverb} + {enough}

Is there enough room?

He isn't big enough.

We can follow the enough phrase with different patterns:

{enough phrase} + [for + person] + {to} + {infinitive}

Is there enough room to sit down?

He isn't big enough to reach the top shelf.

Is she well enough for me to see her?

She wasn't near enough for me to hear her.

{enough} + {of} + {noun phrase}

Is there enough of that wine left?

I've had enough of you! Get out!

I've seen enough of her to last me a lifetime!

enough can also be used as a pronoun:

There isn't enough to go round.

I've had enough!


despite, in spite of
473 - despite, in spite of

When we join two clauses the first event (sub-clause) happened and caused the second event (main clause) but the second event was not successful:

{second event} + {despite/in spite of + first event}

We often use this pattern with these conjunctions:

{despite/in spite of} + {gerund}

She did not get the job despite/in spite of giving a good interview.

These are often followed by a fact which makes the second clause surprising:

Despite his innocence, they executed him.

In spite of his innocence, they executed him.


few - little - many - much - a lot of - lots of
474 - few - little - many - much - a lot of - lots of

When we talk about a quantity of something, we use these words.

Look at this table:

quantity	plural nouns	non-countable nouns
small	a few	a little
large	many	much
large	a lot of	a lot of
large	lots of	lots of
lots of = a lot of

We generally use many and much in questions and negative statements but we use a lot of in positive statements.

There are only a few people left; everyone else has gone home.

There is only a little bit of wine left; they drank most of it.

How many tourists visit Greece each year?

Not many people go there in Winter.

How much money do you have? - I don't have much money on me.

A lot of tourists go to Greece each year.

That man owes me a lot of money.

These words can also be used as pronouns. The use is as above but without the noun or noun-phrase:

Are there any people here? - No, only a few.

Is there any wine in the bottle? - Just a little.

How many tourists visit Greece each year? - A lot in Summer but not many in Winter.

How much money do you have? - Not much; I'm owed a lot though.


go
475 - go

We use

{go} + {present participle}

to talk about things we go out to do:

go dancing, go fishing


it
476 - it

We use it as a personal pronoun to replace a singular neuter noun. We also use it when we are asking or answering about the identity of a person:

Who is it? - It's me.

We use it as a subject of a sentence to talk about the time or the weather:

It's raining.

It's midnight.

As the subject of a sentence when the subject clause comes later in the sentence:

It's funny that we haven't seen them.

We use it as the subject of the sentence when we use a clause. Usually this happens with that... clauses which are not put at the beginning; we use it as an introductory subject:

That you do this is essential.

It is essential that you do this.

The same applies to infinitive subjects:

To err is human.

It is human to err.


it's high time
477 - it's high time

We use the phrase it's high time to say that something should be done now; in fact there is not much time left to do it.

It's high time you got your hair cut.

It's high time we were leaving, the train goes in twenty minutes.

{it's high time} + {subject} + {past simple/continuous}


it was not so much...as
478 - it was not so much...as

When we join two clauses the first event (sub-clause) was not as important as the second event (main clause) in causing something to happen:

{it was not so much + first event} + {second event}

It was not so much anger as fear...


late & lately
479 - late & lately

late has the same form for an adjective or an adverb:

The bus arrived late.

He was a late arrival.

but lately = recently

I've been worrying about money again lately.


let's
480 - let's

We use this to suggest ideas:

{let's} + {infinitive}

Let's go to the beach!

Let's have a party - right here!


matter
481 - matter

When we join two clauses the first event (sub-clause) has no influence on the second event (main clause):

{no matter/it does not matter + first event} + {second event}

It does not matter how hard you try, you will not beat me.

No matter how hard you try, you will not beat me.


may
482 - may

We use may in several different ways:

1) to give permission:

You may leave when you are finished.

You may not talk during the exam.

2) possibility in the present & future:

It may rain.

He may have gone home, I don't know.

3) to ask for something:

May I open the window?

May I see your passport, please?

See also:

Modal Verbs


might
483 - might

We use might as a modal verb to show possibility in the present & future:

It may rain.

He may have gone home, I don't know.

The contraction of might not is unusual:

He might not be here.

He mightn't be here.

It is also unusual to see might as a question:

Might it be time to leave?

See also:

Modal Verbs


hard & hardly
484 - hard & hardly

hard has the same form for an adjective or an adverb:

It was hard work.

We worked hard.

but

hardly = almost none:

He hurt his leg so badly he could hardly walk.


have
485 - have

overview; form; have got; use; questions & negatives; apostrophes

1) The verb have is very important. It is a lexical verb and an auxiliary verb. It is irregular and it is very useful to learn the different forms thoroughly.

2) The table shows the form of the verb have in the present and past:

	person	present	past
singular	I/you	have	had
singular	he/she/it	has	had
plural	we/you/they	have	had

3) When we speak and in informal writing, we use have got rather than have.

I've got no money.

She's got a large house in the country.

The form is identical to have but with the particle got:

{have} + {got}

Questions are either:

Do you have...

or

Have you got...

4) We use the verb have [got]:

4a) to talk about possession:

I have two sisters.

She has a headache.

They had a Porsche but it was stolen.

4b) to show necessity:

You have got to go now.

Have you got to make such a noise?

4c) to show lack of necessity:

You don't have to see the doctor today.

We don't have to pay to get in.

4d) to order food & then eat or drink:

I'll have a sandwich, what will you have?

4f) to describe an experience:

Are you having a good time?

We had a real laugh last night.

4g) have a...:

Did you have a go?

He had a look and didn't like what he saw.

4h) Causative form:

He's having his stairs repainted.

5) When we make questions or negatives with have as a lexical verb, we can use inversion or do:

{have} + {subject}

{do} + {subject} + {have}

It is more common to use do.

6) In informal writing, we often we abbreviate the verb have with an apostrophe:

I have = I've

he has = he's

they had = they'd

See also:

Verb Index


here & there
486 - here & there

use; inversion

1) We use here to talk about somewhere near the speaker:

Is Josephine here at the party? There are so many people here I can't see her.

We use there to talk about somewhere further away:

Can you see him over there by the woods?

2) With short exclamations using here and there, we use inversion:

Here she comes!

There it is!


high & highly
487 - high & highly

high has the same form for an adjective or an adverb:

They pay him a high salary.

He jumped high over the fence.

but highly = very

He is highly thought of in that company.


if only
488 - if only

A normal conditional sentence has an if-clause and a conditional-clause. Instead of using if, we can use if only to add emotional emphasis to the clause or sentence. We usually use it with the second or third conditionals only:

If only we left now, we would catch the train.

If only we had left earlier, we would have caught the train.

The first example shows a strong desire to leave now, while the second shows regret that they left too late.

If only can also be used with just the if-clause as an exclamation.

"If only they would stop shouting!" cried the desperate teacher.

"If only you had listened to me!"

"If only he loved me," sighed the lovesick girl.

If and only can also be separated in some situations:

after be	If you were only able to stop snoring!
after the modal/auxiliary	If you could only stop snoring!
after the subject	If you only stopped snoring at night!

If only is a stronger form of wish. See also wish.

See also:

Conditional Index


in order to, so as to
489 - in order to, so as to

When we join two clauses the first event (main-clause) must happen so that the second event (sub-clause) can happen:

{in order to/so as to + second event} + {first event}

In order to pay for the car, he had to make other financial sacrifices.

These conjunction often comes at the beginning of the sentence.

We can also use the infinitive with to to show reason in the same way as the previous example:

To pay for the car, he had to make other financial sacrifices.


in the dark
490 - in the dark

If you are in the dark about something, you do not know anything about it.

{be} + {in the dark} + {when it comes to} + {noun phrase}

I know nothing about moles.

I am completely in the dark when it comes to moles.


for & since
491 - for & since

As a time adverbial, for means over a period of time and since means from a point in time:

{for} + {time period}

I haven't seen him for ten years.

{since} + {point in time}

I haven't seen him since 1976.


whether...or
492 - whether...or

We use whether to introduce two possibilities:

I want to know whether you want it or not.

I want to know whether we should stay or go


that...
191 - that...

We can use a phrase beginning that... as the subject of a sentence:

That he will go is not important.

Often we use it as a preparatory subject:

It is not important that he will go.


due to
493 - due to

due to can mean scheduled to:

The plane was due to leave at ten.


regret
494 - regret

regret is often followed by the gerund:

I regret going.

I regret not going.


Index of grammar topics
999 - Index of grammar topics

If the word you are looking for is not in this index, use the search command above.

Code	Title
072	1st Conditional
074	1st Conditional or 2nd Conditional?
073	2nd Conditional
075	3rd Conditional
	A
440	a little
474	a lot of
441	according to
998	Adjective Index
003	Adjective Order
002	Adjective Position #1
006	Adjective Position #2
001	Adjectives
004	Adjectives as Nouns
022	Adverb Groups
995	Adverb Index
028	Adverb Order
029	Adverbial Clauses
021	Adverbs
023	Adverbs of Degree
024	Adverbs of Frequency
025	Adverbs of Manner
026	Adverbs of Place
027	Adverbs of Time
442	after
332	Alphabet
443	already
445	although
446	always
042	AmE & BrE Grammar #1
043	AmE & BrE Grammar #2
044	AmE & BrE Vocabulary
041	American & British English
994	American & British English Index
447	and
448	another
229	Antonymic Phrases
408	any & some
450	any, each & every
449	any longer & any more
451	apologise
120	Apposition
095	Article Usage
092	Articles
453	as
452	as a result of
461	as a result of, because of...
416	as soon as
447	as well as
287	Auxiliary Verbs
	B
454	be
455	be able to
456	be about to
457	be allowed to
458	be going to
459	be going to or will?
460	be to
461	because
461	because of
462	before
447	both...and
042	BrE & AmE Grammar #1
043	BrE & AmE Grammar #2
044	BrE & AmE Vocabulary
041	British & American English
994	British & American English Index
463	by far
464	by mistake
465	by myself
	C
466	can
142	Causative Form
113	Common Nouns
053	Comparatives & Superlatives #1
054	Comparatives & Superlatives #2
055	Comparatives & Superlatives #3
051	Comparison
997	Comparison Index
052	Comparison Phrases
183	Complements
072	Conditional 1
074	Conditional 1 or Conditional 2?
073	Conditional 2
075	Conditional 3
077	Conditional Clauses
993	Conditional Index
071	Conditionals
076	Conditionals Miscellaneous
334	Conjunctions
405	consequently
000	Contents
286	Continuous or Simple?
467	could
116	Countable & Non-Countable
114	Countable & Non-Countable Nouns
115	Countable Nouns: Quantity
	D
468	dare
023	Degree Adverbs
096	Demonstrative adjectives
473	despite
992	Determiner Index
091	Determiners
187	Direct & Indirect Objects
145	Direct & Indirect Objects with Passive Voice
216	Direct & Indirect Questions
171	Direct & Indirect Speech
469	do
493	due to
461	due to, beacause of
	E
450	each
406	either, so, too, neither
471	either, neither
470	either...or
472	enough
445	even though
450	every
190	Exclamations
	F
474	few
072	First Conditional
074	First Conditional or Second Conditional?
491	for & since
024	Frequency Adverbs
257	Future
	G
117	Gender
121	Gerunds
475	go
093	Group Articles
	H
484	hard & hardly
485	have
486	here
487	high & highly
	I
488	if only
258	Imperatives
489	in order to
473	in spite of
490	in the dark
999	Index of grammar topics
187	Indirect & Direct Objects
145	Indirect & Direct Objects with Passive Voice
216	Indirect & Direct Questions
171	Indirect & Direct Speech
259	Infinitives
240	Inversion #1
241	Inversion #2
256	Irregular Verbs
476	it
478	it was not so much...as
477	it's high time
	J K L
479	late & lately
480	let's
474	little
474	lots of
	M
025	Manner Adverbs
474	many
481	matter
482	may
483	might
986	Miscellaneous Index
280	Modal Ability
281	Modal Necessity
282	Modal Offers
283	Modal Permission
284	Modal Possibility
285	Modal Requests
279	Modal Verbs
423	Mr, Mrs, Miss, Ms & Madam
474	much
424	much & not nearly
425	much though
426	must
	N
440	nearly
427	need
985	Negative Index
228	Negative Questions
227	Negative Words
226	Negatives
406	neither, so, too
471	neither, either
428	neither...nor
116	Non-Countable & Countable
114	Non-Countable & Countable Nouns
115	Non-Countable Nouns: Quantity
406	nor
424	not nearly & much
447	not only...but also
112	Noun Groups
996	Noun Index
119	Noun Phrase Patterns
118	Noun Phrases
111	Nouns
004	Nouns as Adjectives
	O
143	Object Clauses with Passive Voice
144	Object Complements with Passive Voice
186	Objects
145	Objects with Passive Voice
465	on my own
464	on purpose
429	on the other hand
430	once
431	one & ones
432	only by
433	or
434	ought to & should
461	owing to
435	own
	P
005	Participles as Adjectives
141	Passive by…
143	Passive Object Clauses
144	Passive Object Complements
145	Passive Two Objects
139	Passive Use
140	Passive Verbs
137	Passive Voice
991	Passive Voice Index
138	Passives Forms
268	Past Continuous #1
269	Past Continuous #2
272	Past Perfect Continuous #1
270	Past Perfect Simple #1
271	Past Perfect Simple #2
266	Past Simple #1
267	Past Simple #2
123	Personal Pronouns
260	Phrasal Verbs
026	Place Adverbs
157	Place Prepositions
125	Plural & Singular Nouns #1
126	Plural & Singular Nouns #2
333	Polite Offers & Requests
097	Possessives
184	Predicates
437	prefer
990	Preposition Index
155	Prepositions
157	Prepositions of Place
158	Prepositions of Time
264	Present Continuous #1
265	Present Continuous #2
273	Present Perfect Continuous #1
274	Present Perfect Continuous #2
278	Present Perfect Continuous or Present Perfect Simple?
275	Present Perfect Simple #1
276	Present Perfect Simple #2
277	Present Perfect Simple or Past Simple?
262	Present Simple #1
263	Present Simple #2
436	prevent
438	pride
439	probability
122	Pronouns
113	Proper Nouns
331	Punctuation
	Q
115	Quantity with Countable & Non-Countable Nouns
987	Question Index
214	Question Tags
212	Question Words #1
213	Question Words #2
211	Questions
440	quite
	R
422	rather
124	Reflexive Pronouns
494	regret
171	Reported Speech
	S
401	say & tell
073	Second Conditional
988	Sentence Index
182	Sentence Types
181	Sentences
402	shall
189	Short Answers
403	should
434	should & ought to
286	Simple or Continuous?
453	since
491	since & for
095	Single Articles
125	Singular & Plural Nouns #1
126	Singular & Plural Nouns #2
405	so, therefore
406	so, too, neither
489	so as to
432	so long as
404	so that
408	some
407	some more
188	Statement Patterns
409	still & yet
215	Subject Questions
185	Subjects
053	Superlatives & Comparatives #1
054	Superlatives & Comparatives #2
055	Superlatives & Comparatives #3
	T
401	tell & say
191	that
410	the first time
411	the last time
486	there
412	there is & there are
405	therefore
413	they
075	Third Conditional
445	though
027	Time Adverbs
158	Time Prepositions
406	too
414	try as I might
145	Two Objects with Passive Voice
	U
415	used to
335	Using the Grammar Guide
	V
261	Verb + Preposition
255	Verb Forms
989	Verb Index
254	Verb Patterns
253	Verb Phrases
252	Verb Tense
251	Verbs
	W
416	when
417	whereas
492	whether...or
417	while, whereas
418	while
419	will
459	will or be going to?
420	wish
156	Word & Phrase + Preposition
421	would
	X Y
409	yet & still
	Z


A question tag is an expression like isn't it? or will she? which we add to the end of a question.


An adjective describes a noun, e.g. big; red; old.


A noun names an object or concept, e.g. ball; Peter; sea; idea.


A verb describes an action or state, e.g. walk; run; be; have.


The subject is the main actor in a sentence, e.g. The man ate the cake. We love you.


The object receives the action from the subject, e.g. The man ate the cake. We love you.


A noun phrase is a phrase made from a noun with a modifier such as an adjective, e.g. the big man; all the king's horses


A subject complement tells us something about the subject; it usually follows a verb like be or seems, e.g. I am English. He feels ill. An object complement tells us about the object and follows straight on from it: They called him fat.


A participle is a form of the verb. We have the present participle which ends in -ing (walking, eating) and the past participle which often ends in -ed (walked, liked). They are sometimes known as the -ing or -ed forms but many irregular verbs do not end in -ed such as ate, gone, was.


A pronoun is a word used to replace a noun in a sentence, e.g. I; me; himself; they; one; something; it.


The present perfect simple is formed with have/has and the -ed from: He has departed. We have left. The continuous is formed with have/has, been and the -ing form: She has been working. They have been running..


The present simple is formed with the infinitive. I know. She knows. The continuous is formed with the verb be and the -ing form: He is working. They are talking.


A regular verb makes the past and past participle with -ed, e.g. work - worked - worked. Irregular verbs have different past and past participle forms (though often they are the same) e.g. be - was - been; read - read - read.


A collective noun is a noun which describes a group, e.g. family; government; police; squad; team.


The imperative is formed with the infinitive and used without a subject: Go! Leave now!


An adverb describes a verb, an adjective or a complete sentence, e.g. unfortunately, yesterday, hopelessly.


A preposition is a small word which precedes a noun phrase and shows us where or when something is, e.g. in, on, by, with, for, at.


A determiner comes at the beginning of a noun phrase and restricts the noun, e.g. a, the, some, a few.


The past simple is formed with the past form of the verb. In regular verbs this is -ed: I walked. She laughed. The continuous is formed with was/were and the -ing form: They were walking. She was laughing.


The infinitive is the base form of the verb, e.g. walk, run, eat.


The past perfect simple is formed with had and the -ed form: I had gone. We had talked. The continuous is formed with had, been and the -ing form: I had been talking. We had been laughing.


A modal verb is used to show probability: It might happen. Things could be worse. The modal verbs are: can, could, dare, may, might, must, need, ought to, shall, should, will, would.


A conjunction is a word used to join two clauses such as: if, when, while, but, though.


question words are wh- words used to make questions: who, what, where, when, why, how.


An adverb phrase is a phrase which can be used as an adverbial in a sentence: yesterday morning; half past ten; slowly and surely.


A gerund is also known as a verbal noun. It is the -ing form of a verb used as a noun: Walking is boring. Running tires me.


A countable noun can be counted and has a plural form: one car, two cars. A non-countable noun has no plural form and cannot be counted: rice; water; sugar.


A phrase is two or more words which act together as a group; they are usually classified by their head word e.g. noun phrase; verb phrase.


A preposition phrase is a phrase which consists of a preposition and a noun phrase; together it acts as a prepositional phrase: in the bathroom; on the dole; under the table.


A clause is part of a sentence which contains a subject and a verb (in any form); it can be joined to another clause by a conjunction or act as a subject, etc.


There are three articles which are put before nouns. When we do not use an article, we say we use the zero article, e.g. cats, ideas. There is also the indefinite article, a or an: a cat, an idea. Finally there is the definite article: the cat, the idea.


A proper noun is the name of a person or place; it begins with a capital letter: Peter; the Queen; Yugoslavia.


A possessive adjective is used to show possession with a noun phrase: my car; his house; it's bark.


A possessive pronoun is used in place of a possessive pronoun and noun phrase: mine, yours, his.


A lexical verb is not an auxiliary verb or will or can. A lexical verb has meaning in itself.


A perfect verb is one made with have, has or had and a participle.


The present tenses are the present simple, the present continuous, the present perfect simple, the present perfect continuous.


The past tenses are the past simple, the past continuous, the past perfect simple, the past perfect continuous.


simple tenses are tenses whose main verb is in a simple form, i.e. not continuous: walk; run; go.


continuous tenses are tenses whose main verb ends in -ing. They are sometimes called progressive tenses: running; walking; going.


An auxiliary verb is used to form other tenses; they are be, do and have.


The active voice is the usual form of a sentence. The passive voice puts the active object at the beginning of the sentence: active: Pierre kicked the policeman. Passive: The policeman was kicked by Pierre.


A verb phrase is a main verb and one or more auxiliary or modal verbs; together they act as one unit: has been working; will have gone.


inversion is when we reverse the usual order of subject + verb in a sentence: had I known...


The comparative form of an adjective or adverb is used to compare two items: A is bigger than B; A is more intelligent than B.


The superlative form of an adjective or adverb is used to compare three or more items: A is the biggest in the world; A is the most intelligent in the world.


A conditional sentence has an if-clause and a conditional clause: If I were a rich man, I would buy a Stradivarius violin.


The predicate is the part of the sentence which tells us about the subject: He is the fastest man on earth.


A subject question asks for the identity of the subject of a sentence: Who hit you? - Peter hit me.


A sub (or subordinate) clause is a clause which is part of another clause: I think that you should go.


A main clause can be the whole sentence or part of a large sentence with a sub-clause: I like you. I think that I like you.


The vowels in English are a, e, i, o and u.


The consonants in English are b, c, d, f, g...


An object clause is a clause which acts as the object of a sentence: I gave him what he wanted.


A reflexive pronoun refers back to the subject of the sentence: She enjoyed herself. They prepared themselves.


This is an example of a pop-up definition. Click the mouse to return to the help file.